GEOG 1F91 Lab 6 - FW2023-24 Coastal Processes and Landforms (Updated)
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GEOG 1F91
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Winter 2024 LAB 6
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 1 TEXT REFERENCE:
Chapter 19 –
Coastal Processes and Landforms Chapter 16 –
Fluvial Systems and Landforms OBJECTIVE: This lab serves to develop an understanding of the processes responsible for wave generation, and to identify the landforms resulting from the interaction between waves and the shoreline. WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT? Although our focus is on the physical environment, coasts and shorelines are also typically important human
landscapes. Cities, water transportation routes and recreational activities are all strongly linked to these environments. However, the interaction of waves and the shoreline leads to a potentially very active, and dangerous, geomorphological environment. A case in point is the 2011 tsunami in Japan (Fig. 6.1). Wave related erosional and depositional events often conflict with the intended human uses of the shoreline. These processes are thought to be of even greater significance in the case of the global rise in sea level associated with global warming. It is, therefore, very important to understand the processes operating in the coastal zone to avoid, or at least minimize, these conflicts. INTRODUCTION Coastal processes depend on wave energy for their operation, and coastal landforms are a reflection of these processes. The two primary aspects of coastal processes are erosion and deposition, which act together to smooth out irregular coastlines. Waves are the primary mechanism responsible for geomorphological change, and are generated by the action of wind blowing across the open water surface. The distance of open water over which the wind blows (
fetch
), the wind speed, and the length of time over which the wind blows are the three major factors determining the wave height reaching a shoreline. Because the deep-water wave height is a reflection of the energy being transported in the wave, the wave height gives us an indication of the energy which will be expended along the shoreline. By determining the fetch length in Figure 6.1: A tsunami wave crashes over a street in Miyako City, Iwate Prefecture, in northeastern Japan on March 11, 2011. Source: National Geographic.
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 2 different directions for a given coastal station, and by considering different wind speeds for varying lengths of time, one can estimate the wave height reaching the shore. This can be done using Figure 6.2 using a procedure known as wave hindcasting
(as opposed to weather forecasting
). Knowing the wind speed, and either the wind duration or fetch length, an estimation of the wave height may be arrived at. Contrary to popular belief, waves in deep water transmit only energy and not mass; that is to say, water is not transported from one area to another by waves. Water is simply the medium through which the energy moves (just as sound waves travel through the air). Therefore, it was not the water itself that traveled across the ocean during the Japanese tsunami, but rather just the energy imparted to the water from the tectonic plate movements during the earthquake. The exception is when waves enter shallower water and start to break. As Figure 6.3 shows, when the wave is traveling through deep water, there is no appreciable frictional influence to slow Figure 6.2: Standard graph of wave height for given fetch lengths and wind speeds
wave travel. Wavelengths can be very long, with the corresponding wave height being quite small. While the tsunami crossed the Pacific Ocean in only a few hours, the exceedingly long wavelengths and small wave heights meant that it could have crossed the paths of many ships that may not have even noticed its passage.
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 3 Upon reaching the shallower water near land, however, friction between the wave and the ocean bottom forces the wavelength to decrease. To transmit the same amount of kinetic energy, the wave height must increase proportionately. When the wave becomes too steep, it begins to break. The energy carried by the wave is dissipated by throwing water, and the entrained sediment, against the shoreline. This dissipation of energy is the primary driving mechanism of coastal processes involving erosion, transportation and deposition. As a deepwater wave approaches a shoreline and begins to ground itself on the bottom and break, it begins to stir up the bottom sediments (Figure 6.3; Figure 19.12 in the Text
). The continuing approach of waves to the shore, and the consequent movement of water up the beach (
swash
) and back down during breaking (
backwash
), causes much of this sediment to remain in suspension. This material will subsequently be deposited wherever the water velocity slows down, allowing the material to drop out of suspension (refer to the Hjulstrom Diagram, Figure 16.15 in the Text)
. Therefore, while erosion is typically concentrated in shallower areas, with higher water velocities associated with wave breaking, deposition occurs in the relatively quieter deeper water. Figure 6.3: Wave breaking dynamics
This simple scenario is complicated by irregularities in the shoreline. As waves approach the shoreline, they do so in a series of parallel lines (Figure 6.4; Figure 19.16a in the Text
). If a headland extends out into the water, that portion of the wave striking the headland will ground itself and break in the shallower water in front of the headland sooner than the remainder of the wave still traveling in the deeper water of the adjacent embayment. As the wave continues to move toward the shoreline, this process continues on either side of the headland. This resultant wave refraction
, or bending, tends to focus the wave energy on the headland, while reducing its impact on the embayment of each side. Coastal headlands or bluffs thus serve as the primary source of coastal sediments, while beaches or spits are predominantly depositional forms. Over, time, the headland erodes back while, at the same time,
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GEOG 1F91
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Winter 2024 LAB 6
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 4 bay head beaches or spits are constructed (Figure 6.5; Figure 19.26 in the Text
), having the net effect of smoothing out the shoreline. Figure 6.4: Refraction of wave fronts
As can be imagined, waves seldom directly approach the shore, but rather strike it at some angle. In such a situation, the same mechanism occurs, but results in a net movement of sediment along the shore, known as longshore drift. The breaking wave results in a swash
of water and sediment up
the beach at an angle to the shoreline, while gravity results in a backwash
down
the beach perpendicular to the shoreline. The result is a zigzag movement of material along the shoreline (Figure 6.6; Fig. 19.13 in the Text
). While longshore drift will occur as long as the shoreline is straight, should the coastline have an irregularity such that the sediment carried by longshore drift spills into deeper, quieter water, the velocity will decrease and sedimentation will occur (Figure 6.6). As in the case of headland erosion, the result will also be one of smoothing of the coastline through the construction of spits. This process is well illustrated by Long Point on Lake Erie. As Figure 6.7 illustrates (see also Figure 19.27, Visual Concept Check 19.3 in the Text
), deposition occurs at the extreme easterly tip of the point as sediment carried by longshore drift drops out of suspension into deeper water. In fact, it is the dumping of nearshore-transported sediment in the deeper offshore areas that result in all of the coastal landforms illustrated in Figure 6.5.
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 5 Figure 6.5: Coastal depositional features Figure 6.6: Longshore drift and sedimentation
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 6 Figure 6.7: Depositional dynamics, Long Point, Lake Erie A combination of shoreline erosion, sediment transport by longshore drift, and subsequent deposition is illustrated by Figure 6.8; Fig. 19.45 in the Text
). Erosion of the order of up to a metre per year can occur along the Lake Ontario shoreline in the vicinity of Eighteen Mile Creek, just west of St. Catharines. This material is transported via longshore drift and deposited along the western approach to Port Weller on the Welland Canal, building up the beach over time. Coastal landforms are largely a reflection of the aforementioned attempt by coastal processes to smooth out an irregular shoreline. The shoreline reaches an equilibrium state over time as the cumulative effects of erosional events and depositional events reach a long-term balance. Under relatively calm conditions (low magnitude, high frequency storm events) the shoreline does not experience any considerable erosion, and hence, there would be little, if any, subsequent deposition down shore as a result of longshore drift. Only the moderate magnitude, moderate frequency storm events expend enough energy along the shore to trigger substantial erosion, and only where there is a ready source of sediment available. This is particularly the case in the Great Lakes where large sections of the shoreline are bluffs several metres high, composed of easily erodible fine-grained unconsolidated sediment. Wave attack directly on the base of these bluffs results in the removal of toe support and the mass wasting of vast quantities of sediment directly into the nearshore zone where the waves can transport it down shore via longshore drift. The sandy beaches of low slope do not generally provide a ready source of
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GEOG 1F91
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Winter 2024 LAB 6
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 7 erodible sediment due to their greater efficiency in dissipating wave energy. Events of large magnitude, occurring very infrequently, can actually be destructive in nature. Figure 6.9 illustrates this tenuous equilibrium at Presque Isle, Pennsylvania, on Lake Erie. Over time, the entire feature (a recurved spit –
see Fig. 6.5) has moved slightly eastward. But, more importantly, note the western arm, or neck, of the feature has, in the past, been breached creating an island. Large magnitude, low frequency events have done this at least four times since 1819, with one of the gaps remaining open for 32 years before being closed again by longshore sediment transport (Delano, 1991). To see what this feature looks like today, look it up on Google Maps (https://goo.gl/maps/dGgfY). Figure 6.8: Erosion, transport and sedimentation - Lake Ontario near St. Catharines
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 8 Figure 6.9
: The evolution of Presque Isle, Erie, Pennsylvania, USA
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 9 PROCEDURE We will consider the effects of the factors controlling wave height at different sites on the coasts of Lakes Erie and Ontario (Fig. 6.10 –
Page 14): Toronto (Figure 6.11 - Page 15) and Sand Banks (Figure 6.12 –
Page 15) on Lake Ontario and Rondeau Harbour/Pointe aux Pins (Figure 6.13 –
Page 16) on Lake Erie. 1.
Using these sites, located on Figure 6.10, determine the fetch lengths in kilometres, in each of the appropriate compass directions listed on Tables 6.la-c. Also determine the longest
possible fetch length and direction for each station, if these were not included in the other measurements. This will give you an idea of the range of wave heights reaching the station. Note that not all directions are applicable. For example, under southerly winds, St. Catharines will not experience any waves as the fetch length in that direction is zero (or, in other words, the wind is blowing offshore, or from the land onto the water). At the same time, however, Toronto is experiencing the waves generated by these same winds blowing across the width of Lake Ontario, or about 50 km in this case. 2.
For each site and for each fetch, find the wave height that will be generated for wind speeds of 20, 35, and 50 knots using Figure 6.2. Record your answers on Tables 6.1a-c. Komar (1976) proposes that the wave energy density
, a measure of the energy striking the beach, is defined by the equation: E = (dgH
2
) ÷ 8 where: d = density of water = 1000 kg
.
m
-3
g = gravitational acceleration = 10 m
.
s
-2
H = wave height in metres. Substituting the constant values of water density and gravitational acceleration, this formula simplifies to: E = 1250
.
H
2
(units of kg
.
m
2
.
s
-2 ÷ m
2
, or J
.
m
-2
or energy per area). 3.
For each station and each applicable wind direction compute the wave energy density, giving a measure of the amount of energy being expended on the shoreline. Record your answers on Tables 6.1a-c. Once you have recorded your calculations and measurements for the questions above in each of the Tables (6.1a –
6.1c), copy and paste each table from your working copy into the appropriate space in Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document.
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GEOG 1F91
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Winter 2024 LAB 6
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 10 PART ONE - EXERCISE QUESTION 1 - Completing Table 6.1a (7 marks)
STATION: Toronto This is a working copy. You will submit your answers to Brightspace Wind Direction Fetch (km) Wave Height (20 Knots) Wave Energy Density (E) Wave Height (35 Knots)
Wave Energy Density (E) Wave Height (50 Knots)
Wave Energy Density (E) N NE E SE S SW W NW Longest Possible Fetch, in ANY
direction
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 11 QUESTION 2
- Completing Table 6.1b
(7 marks)
STATION: Sand Banks This is a working copy. You will submit your answers to Brightspace Wind Direction
Fetch (km) Wave Height (20 Knots)
Wave Energy Density (E) Wave Height (35 Knots)
Wave Energy Density (E) Wave Height (50 Knots)
Wave Energy Density (E) N NE E SE S SW W NW Longest Possible Fetch, in ANY
direction
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 12 QUESTION 3 - Completing Table 6.1c (8 marks)
STATION: Rondeau Harbour/Pointe aux Pins This is a working copy. You will submit your answers to Brightspace Wind Direction
Fetch (km) Wave Height (20 Knots)
Wave Energy Density (E) Wave Height (35 Knots)
Wave Energy Density (E) Wave Height (50 Knots)
Wave Energy Density (E) N NE E SE S SW W NW Longest Possible Fetch, in ANY
direction
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GEOG 1F91
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Winter 2024 LAB 6
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 13 Answer the following morphological questions on the basis of map evidence and the wave information you've derived in Tables 6.1a-c. TORONTO ISLANDS: QUESTION 4
- Using Figure 6.5 (see Page 5) as a guide, what type of feature
are the Toronto Islands (Fig. 6.11)? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
QUESTION 5
- According to the wind rose for Toronto (see Figure 6.10), what is the least common wind direction? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
QUESTION 6
- What is this percentage frequency? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
QUESTION 7
- From an examination of the map for Toronto (Fig. 6.11), what is the most important wind direction (ie. wave direction)
to create a longshore drift that will add sediment to the depositional feature there? Hint: refer to Figure 19.19 in the Text
.
Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (2 marks)
QUESTION 8
- What is the potential source area
for the sediment required to form the feature. Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
SANDBANKS: QUESTION 9
- Using Figure 6.5 as a guide, what type of feature
is Sand Banks (Fig. 6.12)? Hint: refer to Figure 19.28b in the Text
Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
QUESTION 10
- According to the wind rose for Kingston (see Fig. 6.10), what is the most common wind direction? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
QUESTION 11
- What is this percentage frequency? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 14 QUESTION 12
- From an examination of the map for Sand Banks (Fig. 6.12), what is the most important wind direction (ie. wave direction)
to create a longshore drift that will add sediment to the depositional feature there? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (2 marks) QUESTION 13
- What is the potential source area
for the sediment required to form the feature (choose A, B, or C from Fig 6.12).
Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
RONDEAU HARBOUR: QUESTION 14
- Using Figure 6.5 as a guide, what type of feature
is Rondeau Harbour (Pointe aux Pins) (Fig. 6.13)? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
QUESTION 15
- According to the wind rose for London (see Fig. 6.10), what is the most common wind direction?
Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document.
(1 mark)
QUESTION 16
- What is this percentage frequency? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
QUESTION 17
- From an examination of the map for Rondeau (Fig. 6.13), what is the most important wind direction (ie. wave direction)
to create a longshore drift that will add sediment to the depositional feature there? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (2 marks) QUESTION 18
- What is the potential source area
for the sediment required to form the feature. Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 15 Figure 6.10: Coastal Stations
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GEOG 1F91
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Winter 2024 LAB 6
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 16 Figure 6.11
: Toronto Harbour as it appeared in 1793 Figure 6.12
: Sand Banks A B C
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 17 Figure 6.13: Pointe aux Pins (Rondeau Harbour)
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 18 SEICHES Waves are not the only threat to shoreline environments on the Great Lakes. Although not affected by tides to any real extent, the lakes are subjected to seiches (pronounced "saysh"). Like water sloshing in a bathtub, seiches are rises and falls in water levels caused by prolonged strong winds. These winds push water toward the downwind end of the lake, causing the water level to rise, sometimes quite dramatically, particularly when the wind direction is straight down the length of the lake. Conversely, at the upwind end of the lake, water levels can fall dramatically. When the wind stops, the water sloshes back and forth, with the nearshore water level rising and falling in decreasingly small amounts on both ends of the lake until it reaches equilibrium. There’s a description of this effect and others at: https://tinyurl.com/y2g2qrh7
. Further explanation and an animation (click on the wave height numbers to make it work) are included at: http://tinyurl.com/lvmfflt
. Lake Erie seems to be particularly susceptible to this effect as the long axis of the lake, roughly southwest to northeast, lines up closely with the prevailing wind direction from the southwest. This effect is magnified by Lake Erie being particularly shallow. As a result, Buffalo, NY, at the eastern end of the lake, can see some dramatic rises in lake levels during prolonged periods of wind from the southwest. At the same time, places on the western end of the lake, such as Toledo, OH, can see correspondingly large drops in water level. We will investigate this effect through the analysis of a data set from November 2003 when a strong low-pressure cyclonic storm system crossed the Great Lakes Figure 6.14). The passage of the cold front resulted in several days of strong winds blowing down the length of Lake Erie (note the very closely spaced isobars over Southern Ontario) causing water level changes along the length of the lake. PART TWO EXERCISE QUESTION 19
- Using the charting function in Excel, produce a properly labeled line
graph of water height at each of the three stations (Buffalo, Cleveland and the Fermi Generating Station) on the y-axis against Date on the x-axis. Save your graph image as a PDF, .jpg, or .png file (Please note that Apple Pages, Apple Numbers, Excel spreadsheets, or other files will receive a zero, or grade deduction). Once you have created the image file, upload the file to Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document.
(5 marks)
The data for this question is located in the Excel file ‘
GEOG 1F91_Lab_#6_Lake Level Height data Buffalo_Fermi_Cleveland
’
, available on Sakai in the Lab 8 folder, located under Resources.
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GEOG 1F91
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Winter 2024 LAB 6
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 19 Figure 6.14
: North American Surface Weather, Nov. 13, 2003 QUESTION 20
–
Part 1
- From the given wind data and Figure 6.10, determine the fetch length from Buffalo along the length of open water of Lake Erie in which the wind was blowing for each of the different directions on each of the four days (Nov. 11-14). Enter your values in Table 6.2 on Page 19. (2 marks) QUESTION 20 –
Part 2
- For each of the four days (Nov. 11-14), using the fetch length determined in the previous question and the wind speed from the table, use Figure 6.2 to determine the height of the waves that should have been reaching Buffalo. Enter your values in Table 6.2 on Page 19.
(2 marks) Once you have recorded your calculations and measurements for question #20, copy and paste the table from your working copy into the appropriate space in Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document.
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 20 TABLE 6.2: Seiche Fetch Lengths and Wave Heights This is a working copy. You will submit your answers to Brightspace Date Nov. 11 Nov. 12 Nov. 13 Nov. 14 Wind Speed (knots) 9 22 32 40 Wind Direction (degrees from True North) 150 230 240 250 Fetch Length from Buffalo (km) Wave Height at Buffalo (metres) QUESTION 21
- Looking at the wind speed and fetch data above, what factor explains why the water level at Buffalo (from the graph from Question 19), is higher on November 13, than on November 14
th
. Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (2 marks)
QUESTION 22
- Using the graph from Question 19, what is the approximate change in height of the water level from before this weather event began until a time during the peak of this event at Buffalo on November 13th? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
QUESTION 23
- Which of the three locations sees the water level remain relatively unchanged during the seiche event? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark) QUESTION 24
- Based on the wave height data (from Question 21), along with the water level data for Buffalo (from the graph from Question 19), which of the four days of the seiche event, would likely cause the most damage to shoreline areas surrounding Buffalo? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
QUESTION 25
- Referring to Figure 6.10 on Page 15, which depositional feature shortens the measurable fetch impacting the seiche water level increase on November 14th? Write out your answer in the space provided or complete the Student Answer Sheet and then copy/paste it into the answer box on Brightspace. Do not upload the entire word document. (1 mark)
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 21 *****Please note that all answers will be submitted through the class page on the school LMS. Submitting your Assignment •
It is recommended you write out your answers in a word document (e.g. Student Answer Sheet provided) or similar text document prior to filling in the questions on Brightspace. In this manner you will have a backup in case of a system error (e.g. WIFI lost, etc.), you will be able to proofread your work before submission and you can copy and paste your answer into the system to save time. •
With all your answers complete •
Sign into Brightspace •
Under the ‘Quizzes’ tab
on the Upper menu, select “Lab Assignment #
6
” •
Once in the Quiz page, write out your answer or copy and paste the answers you have pre-
written to answer the correct questions. •
DO NOT upload the student answer sheet (word doc) –
all answers must be input manually or copied/pasted into the appropriate space unless otherwise indicated. •
When you are asked to upload an image file (PDF or jpg), under ‘browse’, navigate to where you have saved the file on your hard drive (e.g. Desktop) and select the file you want to upload to Brightspace.
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Winter 2024 LAB 6
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 22 REFERENCES Coakley, J.P. (1989) The Origin and Evolution of a Complex Cuspate Foreland: Pointe-Aux-Pins, Lake Erie, Ontario. Geographie Physique et Quaternaire
, Vol. 43 No. 1, Pg. 65-76. Davidson - Arnott, R.G.D. (1986) Rates of Erosion of Till in the Nearshore Zone. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms
, Vol. 11, Pg. 53 - 58. Davidson - Arnott, R.G.D. and S.M. Nurul Amin (1985) An approach to the Problem of Coastal Erosion in Quaternary Sediments. Applied Geography
, Vol. 5, Pg. 99 - 116. Davidson - Arnott, R.G.D. and H. I. Keizer (1982) Shore Protection in the Town of Stoney Creek, Southwest Lake Ontario, 1934 - 1979: Historical Changes and Durability of Structures. Journal of Great Lakes Research
, Vol. 8, No. 4, Pg. 635 - 647. Delano, H.L. (1991) Presque Isle State Park, A Dynamic Interface of Water and Land
. Pennsylvania Trail of Geology Park Guide 21. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Dept. of Environmental Resources, Office of Resource Management, Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey and Bureau of State Parks. 13 p. Johnson, B.L. and C.A. Johnston (1995) Relationship of Lithology and Geomorphology to Erosion of the Western Lake Superior Coast. Journal of Great Lakes Research
, Vol. 21, No. 1, Pg. 3 - 16. Jones, D.G. and A.T. Williams (1991) Statistical analysis of factors influencing cliff erosion along a section of the West Wales coast, U.K. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms
, Vol. 16, Pg. 95-
111. Komar, P.D. (1976) Beach Processes and Sedimentation
. Toronto: Prentice-Hall. 429 p. Kreutzwiser, R.D.and A.O. Gabriel (1992) Ontario's Great Lakes flood history. Journal of Great Lakes Research
, V.18, No. 1, Pg. 194-198. Libicki, C. and K.W. Bedford (1990) Sudden, extreme Lake Erie storm surges and the interaction of wind stress, resonance, and geometry. Journal of Great Lakes Research
, V.16, No. 3, Pg. 380-395. Lick, W., J. Lick and C.K. Ziegler (1994) The resuspension and transport of fine-grained sediments in Lake Erie. Journal of Great Lakes Research
, V. 20, No. 4, pg. 599-612. Rasid, H., R.S. Dilley, D. Baker and P. Otterson (1989) Coping with the effects of high water levels on property hazards: North Shore of Lake Superior. Journal of Great Lakes Research
, Vol. 15, No. 2, Pg. 205 - 216. Rasid, H., D. Baker and R. Kreutzwiser (1992) Coping with Great Lakes flood and erosion hazards: Long Point, Lake Erie, vs. Minnesota Point, Lake Superior. Journal of Great Lakes Research
, Vol. 18, No. 1, Pg. 29 - 42. Scott, R.C. (1996) Introduction to Physical Geography. New York: West Publishing Company. 560 p. Thom, B.G. and W. Hall (1991) Behaviour of beach profiles during accretion and erosion dominated periods. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms
, V.16, Pg. 113-127.
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Coastal Processes and Landforms 23 Vallejo, L.E. and R. Degroot (1988) Bluff response to wave action. Engineering Geology
, Vol. 26, Pg. 1 - 16. Williams, S.J., K. Dodd and K.K. Gohn (1997) Coasts in Crisis (Online version). U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1075, http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1075/ Wood, H.A. (1960) Wave Transport of beach materials on Long Point, Lake Erie. Canadian Geographer
, No. 16, pg. 27-35. Note: This is No. 16 (1960), NOT Vol. 16 (1972). Here is a protractor that you can use to determine wind direction in degrees from True North. Either print this protractor on an overhead transparency (be sure to use the correct type of transparency for your printer), or print it on paper and hold your map (Figure 6.10) and your protractor up to a window, or other light source. N S E W
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