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Study Guide(s) GEO-101 Lecture Joe Lambert, PhD This guide should help streamline your preparation for mid-term exams and the final exam. Not everything in the guide will be on the exams and questions on the exams will not match these questions word for word. The guide is arranged following the order in which the material was presented in lecture and is divided into sections as covered during Exams 1 through 4 plus material after Exam 4. Material Covered on Exam 1 Introductory to Geology Lecture What is the definition of Geology? What is science? Know the basic details of the Kola Superdeep Borehole Why was the Kola Superdeep Borehole project unlikely to ever reach the mantle? What are the general differences between continental and oceanic crust? Chapter 1: The Earth in Context The Scientific Method Geocentric Model Heliocentric Model Approximate size of Milky Way Approximate number of stars in the Milky Way Current estimate for number of galaxies in the Universe (based on Hubble and based on James Webb) What is the Doppler Effect and what does it tell us about the Universe? Key points to the Big Bang Theory How were most elements (besides Hydrogen and Helium) created? What was the composition of the early Universe? Key points of the Nebular Theory Names and order (from Sun) of our solar system’s planets (Pluto does not make the list) Differentiation of Earth’s interior Formation of the moon (how, when) The importance of Earth’s Magnetic Field (why does Earth have a magnetic field?) Which 2 elements make up most of Earth’s atmosphere? What is glass and why is it not a mineral? Silica consists of which two elements? How do pressure and temperature vary with depth into the Earth? What is the geothermal gradient? Know the basics of the crust, mantle, and core (do not need to know exact thicknesses). What is the Moho? What are the asthenosphere and lithosphere? Chapter 2: The Way the Earth Works – Plate Tectonics What contribution to geology did Alfred Wegener provide? Understand Wegener’s 4 Observations -The fit of the continents -Paleoclimate data -The distribution of fossils -Matching geologic (rock) units What was Pangea? What is Paleomagnetism? How does seafloor spreading work? Volcano/earthquake distribution What is the difference between Geographic and Magnetic North/South Pole? What is bathymetry? How and why does the age of seafloor rock vary as you move away from a mid-ocean ridge?

What is a magnetic reversal? What is the Plate Tectonic Theory? Compared to the Earth as a whole, is oceanic crust relatively old or young (and why)? Three plate boundaries and characteristics of each: -Divergent -Convergent (3 types of collisions) -Transform Approximate rates of plate movement Active vs. Passive continental margin Hot spot basics What is a triple junction? Ridge-push force vs. Slab-pull force Chapter 3: Patterns in Nature: Minerals What is an element? What is the difference between atomic number and atomic weight/mass? What is an ion, cation, anion? Chemical bonds: -ionic -covalent -metallic -van der Waals force What is the difference between a molecule and a compound? What is the geologist’s definition of a mineral? What is a polymorph? Anhedral grains vs. Euhedral crystals How do we identify minerals? -color -streak -luster -hardness -specific gravity -crystal habit (form) -cleavage -fracture -special properties (taste, smell, magnetism) What are the issues with using color to identify a mineral? What is Mohs hardness scale? What are the mineral groups, and which is the most common found within continental crust? -silicates -oxides -sulfides -halides -carbonates -native metals What is a silica tetrahedron? Material Covered on Exam 2 Chapter 4: Up from the Inferno: Magma and Igneous Rocks What is the difference between magma and lava? Definition of an igneous rock What is the difference between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks and how does it affect the texture of the rock? What factors control how fast magma/lava cool and crystalize into a solid rock? Know the igneous rock textures and how each texture came about. -aphanitic -phaneritic -glassy -pyroclastic -porphyritic What is a phenocryst? How does lava/magma chemistry affect viscosity and how explosive eruptions might be? How does magma form? 2

-decompression -addition of volatiles -heat transfer from rising magma What factors control magma composition? -source rock -partial melting -assimilation -magma mixing What factors control magma viscosity? -temperature -volatile content -silica content Know the basics of Bowen’s Reaction Series Know examples of common igneous rock based on chemistry and grain size. What are common igneous rock structures? (e.g., batholith, dike, sill, laccolith) Chapter 5: Volcanic Eruptions What is a volcanic eruption? What is a lava flow and what are the three types (and characteristics of each)? -basaltic -andesitic -rhyolitic What is a lava tube? What is Pahoehoe? What is a’a’? What is columnar jointing? What is a pillow basalt? What is lapilli? What is a volcanic bomb? What is volcanic ash? What is a pyroclastic flow? What is tephra, tuff, and a lahar? What is the difference between a crater and fissure eruption? What are the three types of volcanoes and the characteristics of each? Why is volcanic activity not random? What is the difference between an active, dormant, and extinct volcano? What factors can be used to help predict volcanic eruptions and where do we stand with respect to the confidence of these predictions? Chapter 6: Pages of Earth’s Past: Sedimentary Rocks Uniformitarianism Superposition Definition of a sedimentary rock Classes of sedimentary rocks based on the mode of origin -clastic -biochemical -organic -chemical Clastic sedimentary rocks -Formation -weathering (physical vs chemical) -erosion -transportation -deposition -lithification 3

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-Classification -clast size -clast composition -angularity and sphericity -sorting -character of cement What can sedimentary rocks tell us about past environments? What is the difference between limestone and chert? What is coal? Sedimentary structures -bed -bedding plane -strata What is a turbidity current? What is a graded bed? What is a trace fossil? Chapter 7: Metamorphism: A Process of Change Definition of a metamorphic rock What is a protolith? What changes in the preexisting rock’s environment can lead to metamorphism? -temperature -pressure -compression and shear -hot water (hydrothermal fluid) -combination of two or more What does the change in environment produce? (new minerals and/or new texture) Differences between vertical compression, horizontal compression, and shear Equant vs. inequant grains Distinguishing features of metamorphic rocks -texture -metamorphic minerals -foliation (or lack of foliation) Metamorphic processes -recrystallization -phase change -metamorphic reaction (neocrystallization) -pressure solution -plastic deformation Common foliated metamorphic rocks -slate -phyllite -schist -gneiss -migmatite Common nonfoliated metamorphic rocks -hornfels -quartzite -marble Degrees of metamorphism (metamorphic grade) Geologic setting of metamorphism -contact (thermal) -burial -dynamic -dynamothermal (regional) 4

-hydrothermal -subduction zones -shock Know the basics of the Rock Cycle Material Covered on Exam 3 Chapter 8: A Violent Pulse: Earthquakes Definition of an earthquake What hazards are associated with earthquakes? What is the difference between the focus (hypocenter) and the epicenter of an earthquake? What is a fault? What are the different types of faults and what type of movement is associated with each? What if fault displacement? What is a fault scarp? What is stick-slip behavior? What is the elastic-rebound theory? What is an aftershock and a foreshock? What are the types of seismic waves and characteristics of each? -body waves -P-waves -S-waves -surface waves -L-waves -R-waves What are a seismogram and a seismograph? How many seismic stations are needed to find the location of an earthquake’s epicenter? Know the different scales used to define the “size” of an earthquake. Where do earthquakes occur and approximately what depth at each location? Can we accurately predict earthquakes? Chapter 9: Deformation and Mountain Building Principle of Original Horizontality What is an orogen (orogenic belt)? What is an orogeny? What is uplift? What is the definition of deformation? -change in location (displacement) -change in orientation (rotation) -change in shape (distortion) What is the difference between a joint and a fault? What is a fold? What is strain? -stretching -shortening -shear What are the differences between brittle and ductile deformation? What factors control the deformation type? -temperature -pressure -deformation rate -rock composition What is the definition of stress (geologically speaking)? What is the difference between stress and strain? Know how to tell if a transform fault has left-lateral or right- lateral displacement. Fold terminology 5

-hinge line -limb -axial plane (surface) What does an anticline look like and where do you find the oldest/youngest rock? What does a syncline look like and where do you find the oldest/youngest rock? What is differential weathering? What does a dome look like and where do you find the oldest/youngest rock? What does a basin look like and where do you find the oldest/youngest rock? What is the difference between a symmetrical and asymmetrical fold? Know the basics of Strike and Dip and why it is important to geologists. Chapter 10: Deep Time: How old is old? Relative vs. Numerical Age Principle of Lateral Continuity Principle of Cross-cutting relationships Principle of Baked contacts Principle of Inclusions Know how to figure out which rock formation is older/younger based on applying relative age principles (simple diagram). What is an unconformity? -angular unconformity -nonconformity -disconformity What promotes sediment erosion vs. sediment deposition? (hint: has to do with sea level) Lithological correlation Fossil correlation What is the Geologic Column? Eons are divided into Eras Eras are divided into Periods Periods are divided into Epochs How recently have we been able to determine the numerical age for rock/life? What is an isotope and what is the difference between a stable and non-stable (radioactive) isotope? What is radioactive decay? What is a parent isotope? What is a daughter product/isotope? What if a half-life and how can one use the ratio of parent to daughter isotopes to determine the age of a rock? How old is the Earth based on radiometric dating? Chapter 11: A Biography of Earth Know the Eons, Eras, and Periods and the major events/characteristics of each. You will not need to know the exact dates for each, but the ages may help you on the final exam. When (which Eon) and how did the moon form? What is a stromatolite? What was Rodinia? What was the Great Oxygenation Event? What was the Snowball Earth and how did Earth get out of it? What was the Cambrian explosion? Know the basic details of the mass extinctions that we discussed. Material Covered on Exam 4 Chapter 15: Restless Realm: Oceans and Coasts The Water (Hydrologic) Cycle 6

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What are coastal hazards? About how much of the Earth’s surface is covered by ocean? Is the ocean floor flat? How does the bathymetry vary as you move from land to the center of the ocean (passive vs. active margins) -continental shelf (narrow/wide) -continental slope (angle) -continental rise vs. trench -abyssal plain -sea mounts -mid-ocean ridges What is salinity and why does it vary in the oceans? -water temperature -addition of freshwater -evaporation at the ocean’s surface -ocean currents (fast vs. slow) What is an ocean current? -surface current -deep current What is the Coriolis Effect? What is a Gyre? What is Thermohaline circulation? What causes ocean tides? What is tidal reach? How does wave energy vary with water depth? Wave morphology: -crest -trough -base Wave parameters: -height -wavelength -period What is wave refraction and what causes it? What is longshore current and longshore drift? What is an estuary? Chapter 14: Streams and Floods: The Geology of Running Water What is the water table? What is a stream? What is a stream channel? What is a flood? What is a drainage network? What are the 5 common types of drainage networks and what controls the type of network that will develop? What is a drainage divide? What are the differences between a permanent and ephemeral stream? What is stream discharge and what variables are needed for its calculation? Laminar vs. Turbulent flow How do streams erode? -scouring -breaking and lifting -abrasion -dissolution How do streams transport sediment? -dissolved load 7

-suspended load -bed load Stream competence vs. capacity What conditions (high/low energy, fast/slow water) propose sediment erosion/transportation and sediment deposition? What are a point bar and a cut bank? Where is sediment deposited with respect to streams/rivers? What is a floodplain? What is the stream gradient? What is a stream’s longitudinal profile? What is a base level (local/temporary vs. ultimate)? Meandering stream development Delta Alluvial fan Surface water concerns Chapter 16: A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater What is a karst landscape and how are they related to groundwater? What is porosity? What is permeability? What is the saturated zone? What is the unsaturated zone? What is an aquifer? What is an aquitard? What is an example of a good rock (and sediment) for an aquifer? What is an example of a good rock (and sediment) for an aquitard? What is the difference between a confined aquifer and an unconfined aquifer? What is a perched aquifer? What happens when the water table intersects the ground surface? Recharge area vs. discharge area What is hydraulic head? How quickly does groundwater flow compared to surface water? What is the cone of depression? What happens when groundwater discharge is greater than recharge? What is an artesian well? What is the Potentiometric surface? What is a groundwater spring? Why do certain places have hot springs? What are some of the groundwater concerns? -overuse -change in groundwater flow direction -saltwater intrusion -ground subsidence -groundwater contamination Chapter 18: Amazing Ice: Glaciers and Ice Ages What was the contribution to geology of Louis Agassiz? What is a glacial erratic? Understand the basics of how snow turns into hard (often blue) ice when dealing with glaciers. What is firn? What three criteria are needed for a glacier to form? Types of glaciers -Mountain (alpine) -cirque -valley 8

-ice caps -piedmont -Continental How do glaciers move? - basil sliding - plastic deformation Be able to describe glacial movement (where does the glacier move the fastest/slowest and why). What is a crevasse? What is ablation? -sublimation -melting -calving How is ice added/deposited onto a glacier? Zone of accumulation Zone of ablation What is the toe of a glacier? What conditions are needed for glacial equilibrium, advance, or retreat? How do glaciers move sediment? What is a moraine? What is a lateral moraine? What is a medial moraine? Six types of glacial deposits: -till -erratics -glacial marine (how do icebergs play a role here?) -glacial outwash -loess -glacial lakebed What is a kettle hole and how do they form? What is a drumlin? What is glacial subsidence and rebound? How are global ice amounts related to global sea level variation? What was the Laurentide Ice Sheet? How do we know New York was once covered in glacial ice? About how many ice ages have occurred over the past few million years? What is a glaciation? What is an interglacial? What Epoch do we currently live in and is it a glaciation or an interglacial? New Material for Final Exam Chapter 12: Riches is Rock: Energy and Mineral Resources What is energy? What is a resource? -energy resource -mineral resource Sources of energy -sun -gravity -solar energy and gravity -photosynthesis -chemical reactions -fossil fuels -nuclear fission -Earth’s internal heat 9

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How have energy needs changed since 1860? How have energy sources changed since 1860? What is a hydrocarbon? How are hydrocarbons formed? What does plankton have to do with hydrocarbons? What is a source rock? What is kerogen? What is oil shale? What is the oil window? What is a hydrocarbon reserve? Can hydrocarbon reserves be found everywhere? What is a reservoir rock and what types of rock make up reservoir rocks? How do porosity and permeability apply to the movement and trapping of hydrocarbons? What is a “trap” in the context of hydrocarbons? What is a seal rock and what types of rock make up seal rocks? What are the different types of hydrocarbon traps? -anticline -fault -salt-dome -stratigraphic When did we first start drilling for oil? What are the environmental impacts of hydrocarbon use? What is coal? Do coal and oil have the same origin? In other words, were they formed the same way? Know the basics of how coal is formed. Know the different “ranks” or “grades” of coal. What are the environmental impacts of coal use? What hazards are related to coal mining? How does a nuclear power plant work (in general)? What is the difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission? What are the environmental impacts of nuclear power? How does geothermal energy work? What are some of the drawbacks of the following sources of energy: -geothermal -solar -wind -hydroelectric What is the difference between a renewable energy resource and a non-renewable energy resource (and examples of each)? Chapter 19: Global Change in the Earth System What are the two main factors that control change on Earth? What is global change? What are the types of change discussed and examples of each? -gradual -catastrophic -unidirectional -cyclic What was the main factor we discussed regarding sea level change? What are the differences between climate and weather? Are weather events good indicators of climate change? What is climate change? What is the approximate time-scale difference between long-term and short-term climate change? 10

What are the differences between Icehouse and Greenhouse periods? The Greenhouse effect can best be described how? What are a few greenhouse gases we discussed and their approximate lifespan in the atmosphere? -H 2 O (water vapor) ~9 days -CH 4 (methane) ~12 years -CO 2 (carbon dioxide) ~300-1000 years What is the carbon cycle and how are human activities changing the cycle? What are the differences between observed and reconstructed data? When and where did we first start to measure atmospheric CO 2 levels? How do we estimate atmospheric CO 2 levels into the past 100’s of thousands of years? What are a few indictors that global air temperatures have generally increased in the last couple hundred years? How do activity-related CO 2 release into the atmosphere compare to additions from volcanic activity on a yearly basis. What are the names and approximate timing of a warming/cooling periods over the past 2000 years? -Roman Warm Period -Dark Age Cold Period -Medieval Warm Period -Little Ice Age What is the general idea and the importance of positive and negative climate feedback loops? What is smog? What invention helped to reduce smog? What is the IPCC and what do they do? What is paleotempestology? What is the approximate CO 2 concentration in the atmosphere today? The Geology of Alabama What is a physiographic section? What are the 5 physiographic sections of Alabama and the basic characteristics of each? How old is the oldest known rock exposed at the surface in Alabama? What is a common rock atop of Mount Cheaha? -quartzite What is Alabama’s “Fall Line?” How have we changed the natural state of many rivers in Alabama? Why are there virtually no rocks in Alabama from the Permian Period? What role did the Paleozoic Era play in the natural resources found in Alabama today? -limestone (karst) -iron ore deposits -fossil fuel (coal) What lead to the end of the brief “Gold Rush” in Alabama? What are the sources of energy production in Alabama and their approximate percentages? What groundwater issue is problematic along the Alabama Coast? 11

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