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Student name: _Y unfei Tang __ Project 1 The purpose of this assignment is a basic overview of the textbook’s materials, so you will understand the context of the entire course from the start date. Yoy answer to each question should a minimum of 50 words (no maximum limit ) You may enclose and use multiple references for each question Please use the APA style. Please review the following link: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/13/ Page 1 of 12 Question: Answer: Rererences 1. Briefly explain each of several reasons for creating a cluster. Give an example of each reason (1) The first advantage of creating clusters is increased computational power which is approximately proportional to the number of nodes in the cluster (Englander & Wong, 2021). The TOP500 organization's semiannual list of the 500 fastest supercomputers often includes many clusters, e.g. the world's fastest machine in 2011 was the K computer which has a distributed memory, cluster architecture (Yokokawa, Shoji, Uno, Kurokawa, & Watanabe, 2011) (2) The second benefit is making systems fault-tolerant (Englander & Wong, 2021). Clustering is one of the important methods for prolonging the network lifetime in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). It involves grouping of sensor nodes into clusters and electing cluster heads (CHs) for all the clusters, which are used to identify problems in clustering techniques (Adday, Subramaniam, Zukarnain, & Samian, 2022). (3) The third reason is high Adday, G. H., Subramaniam, S. K., Zukarnain, Z. A., & Samian, N. (2022). Fault Tolerance Structures in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs): Survey, Classification, and Future Directions. Sensors, 22 (16), 6041. Englander, I., & Wong, W. (2021). The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach : Wiley. Sloan, J. (2005). High Performance Linux Clusters with OSCAR, Rocks, OpenMosix, and MPI : O'Reilly Media, Incorporated.

Student name: _Y unfei Tang __ Project 1 The purpose of this assignment is a basic overview of the textbook’s materials, so you will understand the context of the entire course from the start date. Yoy answer to each question should a minimum of 50 words (no maximum limit ) You may enclose and use multiple references for each question Please use the APA style. Please review the following link: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/13/ Page 2 of 12 avaibility of systems (Englander & Wong, 2021). A web server cluster may assign different queries to different nodes, so the overall response time will be optimized (Sloan, 2005). (4) The last gain is that while facing large workloads, it is possible to balance loads. For example, email accounts for large organizations can be divided and assigned alphabetically to different machines for storage and processing (Englander & Wong, 2021). Yokokawa, M., Shoji, F., Uno, A., Kurokawa, M., & Watanabe, T. (2011). The K computer: Japanese next- generation supercomputer development project. Paper presented at the IEEE/ACM international symposium on low power electronics and design. 2. What is a “loosely coupled” computer system? How does it differ from a “tighly coupled” system? Each computer is complete in itself, each with its own CPU, memory, and I/O facilities. Data communications provide the link between the different computers. Such systems of computers are called loosely coupled systems. Some authors refer to these systems as multicomputer systems. Loosely coupled systems enable program and data sharing and exchange between complete computers. Some loosely coupled systems share a disk resource or a small amount of memory that can be used to communicate between the Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021.

Student name: _Y unfei Tang __ Project 1 The purpose of this assignment is a basic overview of the textbook’s materials, so you will understand the context of the entire course from the start date. Yoy answer to each question should a minimum of 50 words (no maximum limit ) You may enclose and use multiple references for each question Please use the APA style. Please review the following link: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/13/ Page 3 of 12 different computers. The determining factor that distinguishes a loosely coupled system is the autonomy of each computer within the system complex or network (Englander & Wong, 2021).Multiprocessing systems are also known as tightly coupled systems. In multiprocessing we increase processing speed by introducing multiple CPUs, or cores, to share the processing load. Each core shares access to memory and to I/O resources. 3. Explain the difference between a multi-cloud and a hybrid cloud. A hybrid cloud environment comprises a mixture of private and public cloud services, while a multi-cloud model includes two or more public cloud services. The key difference is that hybrid cloud users own and manage a private cloud resource as part of their cloud infrastructure. 4. LMC - Explain the inner workings of the Little Man Computer and its relation with real life computers, including the basics of assembly instructions. (A three- four sentences answer will suffice) Inner workings involve performing instructions like ADD, RESTORE between mailbox locations and calculators (Englander & Wong, 2021). LMC operates in a very similar way to the real computer but that is easier to understand instinctively. The Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021.

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Student name: _Y unfei Tang __ Project 1 The purpose of this assignment is a basic overview of the textbook’s materials, so you will understand the context of the entire course from the start date. Yoy answer to each question should a minimum of 50 words (no maximum limit ) You may enclose and use multiple references for each question Please use the APA style. Please review the following link: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/13/ Page 4 of 12 real computer uses binary numbers, LMC uses decimal numbers for ease of understanding. The Little Man instruction set is very similar to the instruction sets that appear in most real computers. In real computers, as in the Little Man Computer, most instruction steps are involved with the movement of data between the equivalent of mailbox locations and calculators, with very simple calculations, and with program branching. The real computer differs mostly in the variations to these instructions that are provided, and with the addition of a few instructions that provide programming convenience, particularly multiplication and division instructions, and also instructions that shift the data in a word left or right. 5. Exlain grid computing? To achieve large amounts of computing power for specialized projects, grid computing utilizes spare CPU capability available when individual computers on a large network facility, such as the Internet, are working at less than full capacity. Systems that use the spare processing capacity of computers connected to a Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021.

Student name: _Y unfei Tang __ Project 1 The purpose of this assignment is a basic overview of the textbook’s materials, so you will understand the context of the entire course from the start date. Yoy answer to each question should a minimum of 50 words (no maximum limit ) You may enclose and use multiple references for each question Please use the APA style. Please review the following link: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/13/ Page 5 of 12 network. Each computer is given a small portion of the task to process in its spare time. This technique is called grid computing (Englander & Wong, 2021). 6. Fetch-execute – What is the fetch- execution ? The basic operation of a computer is called the 'fetch- execute' cycle. The CPU is designed to understand a set of instructions - the instruction set. It fetches the instructions from the main memory and executes them. This is done repeatedly from when the computer is booted up to when it is shut down. 7. Stack - How the stack is permanently used through any subroutine call to better write code? In stack, when the routine is again called, the original address is simply pushed down the stack, below the most recent address. We always return from the last called subroutine to the one just previous (Englander & Wong, 2021). Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021. 8. What is a frame in virtual computer? What is the relationship between a program and pages? To begin, assume that memory is divided into blocks. These blocks are called frames. Usually, all the frames are of equal size, typically 1 KB – 4 KB. Suppose we divide a program into blocks, where each block in the program is the same size as a frame. The blocks in a program are called pages. Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021.

Student name: _Y unfei Tang __ Project 1 The purpose of this assignment is a basic overview of the textbook’s materials, so you will understand the context of the entire course from the start date. Yoy answer to each question should a minimum of 50 words (no maximum limit ) You may enclose and use multiple references for each question Please use the APA style. Please review the following link: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/13/ Page 6 of 12 The number of pages in a program obviously depends on the size of the program (Englander & Wong, 2021). 9. DMA - How Direct Memory Access works and when it is useful to use it? The transfer is initiated by a program in the CPU, using programmed I/O, but the CPU can then be bypassed for the remainder of the transfer. The I/O controller will notify the CPU with an interrupt when the transfer is complete. Once this has occurred, the data is in memory, ready for the program to use. DMA is particularly well suited for high-speed disk transfers. It is particularly useful for large systems such as Web servers. It can be used with other high-speed devices and is an effective means to transfer video data from memory to the video I/O system for rapid display (Englander & Wong, 2021). Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021. 10. Why the Von Neumann model is essential in understanding computers ? In the Von Neumann model, the CPU was to include ALU, memory, and CU components. The control unit read instructions from memory and executed them. A method of handling I/O through the control unit was also established. The instruction set contained Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021.

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Student name: _Y unfei Tang __ Project 1 The purpose of this assignment is a basic overview of the textbook’s materials, so you will understand the context of the entire course from the start date. Yoy answer to each question should a minimum of 50 words (no maximum limit ) You may enclose and use multiple references for each question Please use the APA style. Please review the following link: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/13/ Page 7 of 12 instructions representing all the essential features of a modern computer. In other words, von Neumann’s machine contained every major feature considered essential to modern computer architecture. Modern computer architecture is still referred to as von Neumann architecture (Englander & Wong, 2021). 11. What is the fundamental purpose of operating system? What is the role of the file mamanger? The operating system has two fundamental purposes: to control and operate the hardware in an efficient manner and to allow the “users” powerful access to the facilities of the machine by providing a variety of facilities and services (Englander & Wong, 2021). The file manager acts as a transparent interface between the user’s logical view of the file system and the computer’s physical reality of disk sectors, tracks, and clusters, tape blocks, and other I/O vagaries. It provides a consistent set of commands and a consistent view of files to the user regardless of the file type, file characteristics, choice of physical device, or physical storage requirements (Englander & Wong, 2021). Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021.

Student name: _Y unfei Tang __ Project 1 The purpose of this assignment is a basic overview of the textbook’s materials, so you will understand the context of the entire course from the start date. Yoy answer to each question should a minimum of 50 words (no maximum limit ) You may enclose and use multiple references for each question Please use the APA style. Please review the following link: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/13/ Page 8 of 12 12. Data - Please describe any TWO examples representing different formats of data used for still images (bitmap versus object images), video, audio and alphanumerical data. (1) images: JPEG, PNG (2) videos: AVI, MP4 (3) audio: MP3, WAV (4) alphanumerical data: CHAR, VARCHAR 13. CPU-memory – Explain how the CPU and memory communicate. Concept of a register (including MAR/MDR). RAM and ROM chips are connected to a CPU through the data and address buses. The low order lines in the address bus select the byte within the chips and other lines in the address bus select a particular chip through its chip select inputs. A register is a single, permanent storage location within the CPU used for a particular, defined purpose. The memory address register (MAR) holds the address of a memory location. The memory data register (MDR), sometimes known as the memory buffer register, will hold a data value that is being stored to or retrieved from the memory location currently addressed by the memory address register (Englander & Wong, 2021). Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021. 14. What is a real-time system? Describe the impact of a A real-time system is a computer system used primarily to measure external Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware,

Student name: _Y unfei Tang __ Project 1 The purpose of this assignment is a basic overview of the textbook’s materials, so you will understand the context of the entire course from the start date. Yoy answer to each question should a minimum of 50 words (no maximum limit ) You may enclose and use multiple references for each question Please use the APA style. Please review the following link: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/13/ Page 9 of 12 realreal time system on the design of operating systems, paying particular note to the various components and algorithms to be used events that happen in “real time”; that is, the event, when it occurs, requires processing quickly because the data is of critical time-sensitive value. Memory was divided into six fixed partitions of different sizes. Partition P-1 was reserved for high-priority programs, most commonly the data retrieval program, since it had to retrieve data in real time. The operating system was divided into three levels: the command interface; the I/O subsystem; and the kernel, which contained the memory manager, the communication interface, and the scheduler. The operating system kernel had the highest priority by default, since it had to respond to user commands and provide dispatching services. It could interrupt and preempt other programs. The most interesting part of MINOS was the program dispatcher. A real-time clock in the computer interrupted the computer every 1/100th of a second and returned control to the dispatcher. The MINOS dispatching algorithm guaranteed that the high- priority real-time program always got first shot at the CPU and that the maximum Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021.

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Student name: _Y unfei Tang __ Project 1 The purpose of this assignment is a basic overview of the textbook’s materials, so you will understand the context of the entire course from the start date. Yoy answer to each question should a minimum of 50 words (no maximum limit ) You may enclose and use multiple references for each question Please use the APA style. Please review the following link: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/13/ Page 10 of 12 delay before it could execute was 1/100th of a second (Englander & Wong, 2021). 15. I/O – Please list different types of Input/Output: Programmed I/O vs Interrupts and explain how they each work, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. (1) Programmed I/O : Input from the peripheral device is transferred from the I/O controller or buffer for that peripheral device one word at a time to the I/O data register and from there to an accumulator or general- purpose register under program control. Similarly, individual words of output data pass from a register to the I/O data register where they can be read by the appropriate I/O controller, again under program control. Each instruction produces a single input or output. Pros: easy to program and understand Cons: slow; with programmed I/O, input from the keyboard is accepted only under program control (2) Interrupts: Specifically, the interrupt causes the temporary suspension of the program in progress. All the pertinent information about the program being suspended. The computer then branches to a special interrupt handler program elsewhere in memory. When the interrupt routine completes its task, it normally Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021.

Student name: _Y unfei Tang __ Project 1 The purpose of this assignment is a basic overview of the textbook’s materials, so you will understand the context of the entire course from the start date. Yoy answer to each question should a minimum of 50 words (no maximum limit ) You may enclose and use multiple references for each question Please use the APA style. Please review the following link: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/13/ Page 11 of 12 would return control to the interrupted program. The original program would resume execution exactly where it left off, and in its identical state. Pros: useful as notifiers to the CPU of external events that require action. This frees the CPU from the necessity of continuously checking the various input devices (Englander & Wong, 2021). Cons: can be tricky to write if you are using a low level language. 16. Discuss the network futures and services provided in the operating system. Which services are matadory? Why? (1) Nearly all modern communications services rely on wired and wireless Ethernet, together with the TCP/IP protocol suite, together with its IP-based applications. TCP/IP protocol Network and communication services within the operating system provide the communication software necessary to implement the features and facilities of Wi- Fi, wired Ethernet, and TCP/IP. Most systems also implement a substantial set of TCP/IP applications and extensions, including e-mail, remote login, Web services, streaming multimedia, voice over IP telephony (VoIP), secure networking across the Internet (called a virtual Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021.

Student name: _Y unfei Tang __ Project 1 The purpose of this assignment is a basic overview of the textbook’s materials, so you will understand the context of the entire course from the start date. Yoy answer to each question should a minimum of 50 words (no maximum limit ) You may enclose and use multiple references for each question Please use the APA style. Please review the following link: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/13/ Page 12 of 12 private network, or VPN), and more. Most modern systems also provide Bluetooth capability. (2) TCP/IP protocol. TCP/IP provides the facilities to locate and connect to other computer systems, to pass application data in packet form from one system to another, to access files, I/O devices, and programs from remote systems, to provide error checking and correction when appropriate, and to support the requirements of distributed processing (Englander & Wong, 2021). 17. What is a page in virtual storage? What is the relationship between program and pages? Suppose we divide a program into blocks, where each block in the program is the same size as a frame. The blocks in a program are called pages (Englander & Wong, 2021). Same as mentioned in the anser of Question 8. Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021. 18. Explain how the shortest job algorithm can result in starvation? When SJF is implemented, it generally includes a dynamic priority factor that raises the priority of jobs as they wait, until they reach a priority where they will be processed next regardless of length. Englander I, Wong W. The Architecture of Computer Hardware, Systems Software, and Networking: An Information Technology Approach: Wiley; 2021.

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