MHA 701 Paper - Communication

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Louisiana State University, Shreveport *

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Communications

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Apr 3, 2024

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Communication MHA 710 November 10, 2023

Abstract This article explores Topic Issue #4, communication. Within healthcare organizations setting, communication is still one of the greatest challenges facing the industry today. There are several theories of communication, but this paper will address one - interpersonal communication theory. There are three theoretical approaches to communication that focus on interpersonal communication using verbal and nonverbal communication process. The first is the Individually Centered Theories which encompasses Goals-Plans-Action Theory, Uncertainty Theories, and Action Assembly Theory. The second theoretical approach is the Interaction- Centered Theories, which encompasses three theories: Communication Accommodation Theory, Facework and Politeness Theory, and Speech Codes Theory. The third theoretical approach is the Relationship Centered Theories that encompasses Social Penetration Theory and the Norm of Reciprocity, and Communication Privacy Management Theory. The theoretical approach I will discuss is the Interaction Centered Theories focusing on the Communication Accommodation Theory. This paper will delve into the communication process, parties involved, the communication models and channels, and feedback. I will explore the barriers to effective communications such as cultural differences and information overload, and ways to overcome them. Challenges faced during the communication process will be discussed as well as strategies to incorporate best practices to enhance and improve communication. The article is based on research of scholarly and peer reviewed literature especially in the healthcare setting.

Communication Can you envision life without communication? Where individuals are unable to express themselves or do not possess the power to communicate? Life would not be vibrant but dull and meaningless. Imagine a patient that walks into an emergency room but cannot express to the medical professionals their issues, or even understand basic instructions! What if the doctors, nurses, and patients failed to understand each other in the emergency room? The whole environment would be full of chaos, mistakes, stress, and could lead to injuries and loss of lives. That is how powerful and significant communication is. It is an indispensable element that is the lifeblood of existence. Since communication plays a vital role in personal and professional environments, and social interactions, it becomes the foundation of human interaction that holds societies together. It helps in relationship building because people can share their ideas, thoughts, and feelings thus fostering understanding, connection, and trust between individuals and society. Communication also helps resolve conflicts and prevent them from escalating, leading to a harmonious environment (Polito, 2013). In a professional environment, effective communication is a recipe for success. It enables innovation, enhances collaboration, and increases productivity through setting expectations and providing feedback for people to understand and execute tasks properly. Communication skills are important to personal growth and development allowing for people to learn and build emotional intelligence and social competence that allows them to navigate life situations. Communication helps in conveying or exchanging information facilitating learning and informed decision making. In increasingly diverse societies and environments, it is important to foster cultural understanding and tolerance to bridge gaps and promote inclusiveness in people from different backgrounds. Effective communication promotes

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diversity and inclusion through driving and directing individuals towards becoming culturally competent. Abasenga (2023) advises that being aware of someone’s cultural background is important to facilitate effective communication. For an organization to be successful, its leaders must have strong effective communication skills so that they are well able to articulate a vision, set expectations, and inspire their teams towards goal accomplishment. Therefore, effective communication is vital for everyday living and contributes to social harmony and a sense of community. Communication Accommodation Theory The success of interpersonal and intergroup relationships is significantly impacted by the ways individuals communicate. Communication has many dynamics, and one of the core theories that delves into interpersonal and intergroup communication is the Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT), previously known as the speech accommodation theory. This theory was developed in 1971 by Professor Howard Giles and focuses on how individuals modify their communication behavior resulting from their communication with each other (Popan, 2023). Individuals adjust through verbal or nonverbal communication to control the social differences between the parties involved. Convergence and divergence are the two constructs that make up the theory of accommodation. According to Bylund et al (2012), convergence is the matching of another’s communication style, and it is indicative of desired or perceived similarity while divergence shows a desire to emphasize differences in communication styles. This can be expressed in situations like when communicators accommodate each other, taking their mutual conversational needs and the role or power relations. Those that are perceived to have greater power or role in the interaction tend to be more accommodated than those with less power.

Social psychology influences the communication accommodation theory. Some major assumptions that guide the communication accommodation theory are Similarity and difference in speech and behavior while communicating, people decide to accommodate and fit in by evaluating a conversation through understanding behavior and perception of speech of the other, language and behavior determines belonging and social status, and the accommodation process is guided by norms which vary in the degree of appropriateness. The Communication Process There are several key components that are part of the communication process with each contributing to how effective a message is conveyed. These components are Sender, Message, Encoding, Channel, Receiver, Decoding, Feedback, and Noise. The sender initiates communication by encoding their thoughts and ideas into a form that can be understood easily by the recipient. The message is the information or content that the sender wants to convey which can take various forms such as verbal, nonverbal, visual, written and many more. Encoding entails converting the message into a form that can be effectively transmitted such as spoken words, written material, and body language. Once the message is encoded, it is transmitted through a channel. This may take various mediums such as face to face conversations, telephone or written communication, electronic communications among others. The speed and accuracy of communication is influenced by the choice of the channel. The receiver plays a vital role in the communication process. They are the individual or group whom the message is intended to and once they receive it, they interpret and decode it. If the receiver’s understanding of the message is not what the sender intended, it may potentially lead to misunderstanding. The process by which the receiver interprets the message and makes sense of it is called decoding. For decoding to be effective, the receiver must pay attention and be

receptive to the message. Decoding involves understanding words, symbols, and cues that the sender uses. One of the most important parts of the communication process is feedback. Feedback is the reaction or response to a message from the receiver to the sender. It provides the sender information on how well the message was received and understood and closes the loop in the communication process. Feedback helps in refining future communication and can be verbal or non-verbal. Noise is any barrier or interference that disrupts or distorts the communication process (McCroskey, 2018). Noise can be external which includes environmental factors, or internal such as personal factors. To maintain the accuracy and clarity of the message, it is important to minimize noise. Communication Models Models of communication simplify the complex communication process by providing a visual representation of the different facets of a communication encounter. Models allow the participants to see specific steps and concepts within the communication process and apply them. This article will discuss three models: transmission, transactional, and interaction models. Transmission Model Ellis & McClintock (1990) describe the transmission model of communication as a one- way, linear process in which a sender deliberately conveys a message to a receiver. The model’s focus is on the sender and the message within the communication encounter, and while the receiver is in the model, their role is seen as more of an end point rather than a continuing process. The model can be described by and example of a radio station where a radio presenter encodes a verbal message which is transmitted by radio waves and reaches the receiver via their radio for them to decode. The radio presenter does not know if the receiver gets their message

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but if all the equipment is working properly, then chances are that the message is successfully received. Interaction Model According to Schramm (1997), the interaction model of communication describes a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, generating meaning by transmitting messages and receiving feedback within physical contexts. Feedback allows participants to understand their roles during the communication encounter. The interaction model incorporates feedback rather than being a one-way linear process, thus making communication an interactive two-way process. With this model, communication is not evaluated as effective or ineffective based on whether a single message is or is not successfully transmitted and received. It is more interaction focused and less message focused which may lead to some messages being unintentionally sent. Transactional Model In this model of communication, participants social realities within cultural, relational, and social contexts. The participants alternate simultaneously as senders and receivers, and it accounts for how communication shapes our realities, relationships, and society (Barnlund, 2008). The participants are not labeled as senders and receivers, but as communicators thus allows them to adapt their communication based on situations. The model is also based on social context, relational context, and cultural context. Social context refers to the specified rules that communicators learn or unspecified norms that are implicitly picked up that guide communication. Relational context refers to the type of relationship or interpersonal history that we have with a person. People communicate differently with others they have known for a long time

versus strangers. Cultural context encompasses identity aspects such as gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, sexual orientation, ability, and class. Communicators have multiple cultural identities that may influence their communication. Some know that their cultural identity can influence how they communicate and how others communicate to them, while others do not even consider their cultural identity and do not think it plays a role in their communication encounters. Communication Channels New methods of communication and technology continue to develop and evolve, making it important for those sending messages to be aware of their intended recipients preferred communication channels. A study conducted by Carroll, Lamm, & Boron (2022) indicated that the most effective communication channels for people under the age of 50 was through social media and the internet, while those over 50 preferred newspapers and word of mouth. This goes to show that age is also a factor to consider when selecting a communication channel. Language and culture also play a role in what communication channel can be used because language barriers especially in the healthcare industry can have unintended consequences and can be life-threatening. The two channels of communication are verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal Communication Verbal communication entails spoken or written words that are used to share information among communicators. This can be in form of face-to-face communication and telephone calls which has immediate feedback and can involve non-verbal cues. Written communication can include letters, memos, computer aided communication such as email and digital communication. Written communication can reach multiple recipients and allows for formality when dealing with professional communication or detailed instructions and is documented.

Digital communication allows for real-time communication such as when using instant messaging, video conferencing, webinars, or online meetings. Printed material such as brochures and flyers, reports and manuals can be used to informational purposes, marketing, event promotion, research, business reports and they can have a visual appeal and be mass distributed. Broadcast media which includes radio, television, podcasts have a mass outreach and can be effective in disseminating information. With the growth of social media such as X, LinkedIn, and Facebook, a wide reach to an audience can be achieved and they are good for networking, marketing, and disseminating news. Messaging applications can be useful to groups and teams for discussions and collaboration as they are quick and informal. Non-Verbal Communication When information is shared without using words, it is referred to as non-verbal communication. While verbal communication is a vital part of communication, what is not said verbally can be more important. Cues such as tone of voice, body stance, and facial expressions are forms of nonverbal communication. According to Mehrabian (1981), 55 percent of a receiver’s comprehension of a message is based on nonverbal cues. Body language, appearance, and tone of voice must align with the message being conveyed. There are known faults in how nonverbal communication is received and interpreted. Patterson et al (2023) documented four nonverbal communication persistent misconceptions; that people communicate using body language that can be decoded, that they can deceive and detect deception using telltale cues, that they express emotion using universal facial expressions, and that they have a stable personal space by which they control contact with

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others. Therefore, being able to understand and interpret non-verbal communication in a realistic and accurate manner can enhance skills and make communication effective. Feedback in Communication When a sender’s message has been received, decoded, and understood by the receiver, effective communication has taken place. Feedback occurs when the receiver indicates through a response that the message has been received. Therefore, feedback is important as it allows the sender to know if their message was received and decoded as intended. Barriers to Communication Many factors can impede the smooth flow of communication making it more of a challenge. It is important to identify these barriers and address them to make communication effective. Some of the common barriers include physical barriers, environmental barriers, personal barriers, cultural barriers, interpersonal barriers, psychological barriers, technological barriers, selective perception, semantic barriers, organizational barriers, and information overload. Meuta et al (2015) acknowledge that due to healthcare systems experiencing an increase in culturally and linguistically diverse populations, it is important to understand how language may create barriers to healthcare. A study conducted by Abu-Arqoub & Alserhan (2019) concluded that when the sender and receiver do not understand each other’s culture and language, miscommunication, misinterpretation, and misunderstanding can occur. Using the communication accommodation processes is important in understanding the dynamics of dialogue and intercultural competence. A proactive approach is needed to address communication barriers. One must first recognize the barriers and find ways to eliminate or mitigate them to enhance the efficacy of their communication processes. This may entail employing tools and strategies which are

addressed in best practices for effective communication, fostering a positive organization climate, promoting diversity and inclusion, and improving communication skills. Best Practices for Effective Communication Some of the strategies for effective communication include clarity, active listening, using the right channel, feedback mechanisms, and empathy. Senders must avoid ambiguity by having clear and straightforward messages using language that will be understood by the intended recipient. Active listening is a critical communication style as communicators can use the available information to gauge reactions and allows them to evaluate situations and respond to them in an appropriate manner (Anderson, 2022). Active listening also fosters a collaborative and inclusive communication environment as it demonstrates respect when one listens and takes feedback from others. Depending on the nature of the message and audience preferences, the sender should select an appropriate communication channel. Having empathy can build strong relationships and understanding when senders and receivers consider the perspectives of each other and are empathetic to their reactions and emotions. One way to accommodate and show empathy is to adjust to others’ conversational needs, and knowledge. When it comes to electronic communication, it is important to watch the tone of the message. According to Williams (2006), the effect of tone can have a tremendous effect on how a message is interpretated, on the perception of its sender, and the affiliation between the sender and receiver. Learning or improving communication skills is important to keep communication lines open and productive. Through commitment, engagement, and proper corresponding behavior, successful communication skills can help avert confrontation and negative outcomes (Polito, 2013). Having an open mind is important as it can help avoid

stereotyping, discrimination, and racism by helping one to be aware of their own bias and fixing it. Conclusion To navigate the complexities of a diverse world, have effective interpersonal relationships and collaborations, it is important to understand the diverse forms of communication. The communication accommodation theory can be used in many contexts such as between ages, genders, and cultures to ensure relevance in the communication process. Specific communication methods may be required in different situations but people or organizations that adapt to communication can better connect with others and have effective communication.

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Citations Abasenga, A. (2023). The Aspects that Affect Verbal Communication in Intercultural Communications. Journal of History, Culture & Art Research 12(1), 14–25. Retrieved fromhttps://doi-org.lsus.idm.oclc.org/10.7596/taksad.v12i1.3221 Abu-Arqoub, I., & Alserhan, F. (2019). Non-verbal barriers to effective intercultural communication. UtopiayPraxis Latinoamericana, 24, 307–316 . Retrieved fromhttps://search- ebscohost-com.lsus.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=zbh&AN=142607841&site=eds- live Anderson, D. (2022). MESSAGE RECEIVED: Tools and best practices for effective verbal and nonverbal communication. Parks & Recreation, 57(2), 48–51. Retrieved fromhttps://search- ebscohost-com.lsus.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f6h&AN=155000124&site=eds- live Barnlund, D. (2008). A transactional model of communication, Communication theory (2nd ed., pp. 47-57). New Brunswick, New Jersey Baskin, O., & Bruno, S. (1977). Transactional Systems Model of Communication: Implications for Transactional Analysis. Journal of Business Communication, 15(1) . https://doi- org.lsus.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/002194367701500106 Bylund, C., Peterson, E., & Cameron, K. (2012). A practitioner's guide to interpersonal communication theory. Patient Educ Couns.Jun;87(3) . Retrieved fromhttp://doi: 10.1016/j.pec.2011.10.006. Carroll, A., Lamm, K., & Borron, A. (2022). Finding the Right Channel: An Analysis of Communication Channel Preferences. Journal of Agricultural Education, 63(2) . Retrieved fromhttps://doi-org.lsus.idm.oclc.org/10.5032/jae.2022.02131 Ellis, R., & McClintock, A. You Take My Meaning: Theory into Practice in Human Communication (London: Edward Arnold, 1990), 71.

McCroskey, J. (2016). An Introduction to Rhetorical Communication: A Western Rhetorical Perspective . Ninth Edition. Routledge. Mehrabian, A. (1981). Silent messages. New York: Wadsworth. Meuter, R., Gallois, C., Segalowitz, N., Ryder, A., & Hocking, J. (2015). Overcoming language barriers in healthcare: A protocol for investigating safe and effective communication. BMC Health Services Research, 15(1), 1–5 . Retrieved fromhttps://doi-org.lsus.idm.oclc.org/10.1186/s12913-015-1024-8 Patterson, M., Fridlund, A., & Crivelli, C. (2023). Four Misconceptions About Nonverbal Communication. Perspectives on Psychological Science : A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 18(6), 1388–1411. Retrieved fromhttps://doi-org.lsus.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/17456916221148142 Pine, R., Giles, H., & Watson, B. (2021). Managing patient aggression in healthcare. Psychology of Language and Communication, 25(1), 62–81 . Retrieved fromhttps://doi- org.lsus.idm.oclc.org/10.2478/plc-2021-0004 Polito, J. (2013). Effective Communication during Difficult Conversations*. Neurodiagnostic Journal, 53(2), 142–152. Retrieved fromhttps://search-ebscohost-com.lsus.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx? direct=true&db=pbh&AN=88429420&site=eds-live Popan, E. (2023). Communication accommodation theory (CAT). Salem Press Encyclopedia. Retrieved fromhttps://search-ebscohost-com.lsus.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx? direct=true&db=ers&AN=113931122&site=eds-live. Schramm, W. (1997). The Beginnings of Communication Study in America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997). Williams, L. (2006). Communication across the Campus. Journal of Business Communication, 43(2), 158–171. Retrieved fromhttps://doi-org.lsus.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/0021943605285353

MHA 701 Paper - Communication

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