UNIT IV our planetary neighborhood
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UNIT IV: Our Planetary Neighborhood
Outline and Study Guide
Overview of the Solar System
● Inventory
1. List the four categories of solar system objects, and give examples from each category
star, planet, dwarf planet, moon/satellite, comet, and asteroid
2. Cite the recently adopted criteria that define a “planet” and “dwarf planet”
It must orbit a star (in our cosmic neighborhood, the Sun).
It must be big enough to have enough gravity to force it into a spherical shape.
It must be big enough that its gravity cleared away any other objects of a similar size near its
orbit around the Sun.
A 'dwarf planet' is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for
its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly
round) shape, (c) has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite.
● Scale of the Solar System
1. Using a meaningful analogy (ex: travel times or a scale model), discuss the relative sizes and
distances of objects in the solar system
Travel times
By car
By nasa
By light
Ny
18 hrs
4 minutes
0.004 sec
The moon
5 months
A few days
1.3 sec
mars
60 yrs
8 months
3 min
Neptune
6,000 years
12 years
5 hrs
Alpha centauri
A veeery long
time
50,000 yrs
4 years
2. Define the terms light second, light hour, light year
A light second
A light hour is the distance that light travels in one second. Since light travels at a constant speed,
this distance is always the same. In terms of numerical values, it's roughly 299,792 kilometers
(or about 186,282 miles).
Light Hour:
A light hour is the distance that light travels in one hour. To calculate this, you would multiply
the speed of light by the number of seconds in an hour (3600 seconds). Therefore, a light hour is
approximately 1,079,252,848.8 kilometers (or about 670,616,629 miles).
Light Year:
A light year is the distance that light travels in one year. Since a year consists of many seconds,
the distance covered by light in a year is significantly larger. To calculate a light year, you would
multiply the speed of light by the number of seconds in a year (approximately 31.56 million
seconds). This results in a distance of about 9.461 × 10^12 kilometers (or around 5.878 × 10^12
miles).
● Gross Characteristics of the Planets
1. Identify the two physical characteristics that define the Terrestrial and Jovian groups of
planets.
Terrestrial planets mercury Venus, earth, and mars; slow rotation, (small) and relatively solid.
heavy, metallic elements. No ring systems, few satellites
Jovian:
Jupiter
(liquid)
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (much larger) are not solid objects, gasses, and
liquids.
Large and fluid. Light elements, hydrogen, and helium. Fast rotation. Ring systems, many
satellites
2. Summarize the secondary physical characteristics that distinguish Terrestrial planets from
Jovian planets.
; small and relatively solid. heavy, metallic elements.
9much larger) are not solid objects, gasses, and liquids.
Large and fluid. Light elements, hydrogen, and helium
SIZE and STRUCTURE
3. Summarize the dynamical similarities among the major planets and their satellites
Motions, all planets revolve in nearly the same place.
All revolve and rotate around the sun in the same direction. (Counterclockwise)
Venus rotates clockwise.
Many planets and their satellites have orbits that are aligned in a relatively flat plane. This is a
consequence of the way they form from a rotating disk of gas and dust.
All rotate with their axis of rotation perpendicular to their orbital plane (except Uranus tipped
over 90 degrees)
● Origin of the Solar System
1. Describe, in general terms, the major stages in the formation and evolution of the solar system
First you need gravity. Gravitational contraction.
The process begins with a giant molecular cloud composed of gas and dust. This cloud
undergoes gravitational collapse, leading to the formation of a rotating disk known as the solar
nebula. Most of the material in the nebula is hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of other
elements. In the center of the solar nebula, a concentration of material forms a protostar. As this
protostar accumulates more mass, its gravitational forces increase, and it begins to heat up. ( this
is where a star forms) (conservation of angular momentum)
to form a rocky planet you have to
have solid particles
(accretion) snowballing effect. 50 million years to form a planet. Frost line-
critical distance away from the sun, far enough you can have snowflakes form .so now iron, rock,
and little specs of ice. The ice particles are more abundant than the rocky ones. Planetesimals
will gently collide and get bigger to form protoplanets. The protoplanets heat up due to
gravitational energy and radioactive decay. This leads to differentiation, where heavier elements
sink towards the core, and lighter elements rise to the surface. This process results in the
formation of layered structures in the planets. The forming Sun, now a young star, begins
emitting solar wind that clears remaining gas and dust from the solar system, leaving behind a
more orderly arrangement of planets and smaller celestial bodies.
2. Explain how this model accounts for
a) some of the dynamical regularities of the major planets
The scarcity of volatiles and the competition for rocky material limited the size of these planets.
Jovian planets formed in the colder outer regions of the protoplanetary disk, where volatile
compounds like water, ammonia, and methane could exist in solid form.
These planets likely formed a solid core of rock and metal first, and then, through the process of
accretion and capturing of gases from the disk, they accumulated massive atmospheres
predominantly composed of hydrogen and helium.
b) the difference in size and composition of Terrestrial and Jovian planets
the differences in size and composition between Terrestrial and Jovian planets are attributed to
their distinct formation locations in the protoplanetary disk, influencing the availability of
volatile materials and the types of elements that could condense in each region.
Principles of Planetology
● Basic Concepts
1. What are the four basic materials that make up the solar system? What are their relative
abundances?
Hydrogen (H):
Abundance: Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the solar system. It constitutes
about 74% of the elemental mass in the Sun and approximately 92% of the atoms.
Helium (He):
Abundance:
Helium is the second most abundant element in the solar system. It makes up about 24%
of the Sun's elemental mass and roughly 7-8% of the atoms.
Oxygen (O):
Abundance:
Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the solar system. It accounts for
approximately 1% of the Sun's elemental mass and about 0.1% of the atoms.
Carbon (C):
Abundance:
Carbon is the fourth most abundant element, constituting about 0.3% of the Sun's
elemental mass and around 0.03% of the atoms.
It's important to note that these abundances are given in terms of the elemental composition of
the Sun. The Sun is primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of heavier
elements like oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and others. The abundances of elements in other parts of
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the solar system, such as planets, moons, and asteroids, can vary, but the overall pattern of
hydrogen and helium dominance holds.
2. Define mean density. What can be inferred about an object based on its mean density?
P= m/v
P
is the mean density
M
is the mass of the object
V
is the volume of the object
This measure gives an indication of how much mass is packed into a given volume
.
In summary, mean density is a valuable metric for understanding the composition, structure, and
likely evolutionary history of celestial objects. It plays a crucial role in characterizing planets,
moons, asteroids, and other astronomical bodies.
3. Define albedo, and explain how it is related to a planet’s surface temperature.
The albedo of a planet plays a crucial role in determining its surface temperature through the
following mechanisms:
Albedo is a measure of the reflectivity of a surface, describing the fraction of sunlight or solar
radiation that is reflected back into space. It is expressed as a percentage, with 0% indicating a
perfectly absorbing (black) surface, and 100% indicating a perfectly reflective (white) surface.
The albedo of an object is influenced by the type of material it is made of and the angle and
intensity of incoming sunlight.
Earth: The Standard of Comparison
● Earth’s Interior
1. Explain how we can study the internal structure of the Earth
Earthquakes and seismographs
2. Identify the Earth’s major internal structural layers and their composition
Core, mantle, and crust are divisions based on composition. The crust makes up less than 1
percent of Earth by mass, consisting of oceanic crust and continental crust is often more felsic
rock. The mantle is hot and represents about 68 percent of Earth's mass. Finally, the core is
mostly iron metal. Inner core is solid, pressure keeps it solid. outer core is liquid
3. Explain why the interior of the Earth and other planets became differentiated
Most geologists believe that the key differentiation process in the Earth was melting of much of
the inner rock material after the Earth formed. The source of the heat was radioactive minerals
trapped in the Earth as it formed.
Key Factors Leading to Differentiation:
Gravity: The force of gravity plays a crucial role in the settling of denser materials toward the
center of the planet.
Heat: High temperatures in the early stages of planetary formation lead to melting and
differentiation.
Material Properties: Differences in material properties, such as density and composition,
influence how materials segregate during differentiation.
● Earth’s Surface
1. Describe the process of convection and its relevance to plate tectonics
Convection is a process of heat transfer that occurs in fluids (liquids and gases) where warmer,
less dense material rises, and cooler, denser material sinks. The rising and sinking of material in
the mantle create forces that lead to the formation of new crust at mid-ocean ridges, the sinking
of crust at subduction zones, and the lateral movement of plates at plate boundaries. This
dynamic process is central to the theory of plate tectonics, explaining the motion and interaction
of Earth's lithospheric plates.
Convection currents transfer heat from one place to another by
mass motion of a fluid such as water, air or molten rock. Lava lamp!
2. Describe the different ways in which the Earth's lithospheric plates interact
They crash. They crush. They scrape. They crumple. They slide. They split. They melt.
In incredibly-slow motion
.
The movement of the plates creates three types of tectonic boundaries: convergent, where plates
move into one another; divergent, where plates move apart; and transform, where plates move
sideways in relation to each other.
Subduction zones are where Earth's tectonic plates dive back into the mantle, at rates of a few to
several centimeters per year. An oceanic trench shows where the plate disappears, and a dipping
zone of earthquakes show where the subducting plate is. Subduction zones are where Earth's
deepest (~ 700 km) and strongest earthquakes (Magnitude ~ 9) occur.
3. Identify the primary type of geological activity which results from each type of plate
interaction
At a convergent plate boundary, one plate dives (“subducts”) beneath the other, resulting in a
variety of earthquakes and a line of volcanoes on the overriding plate; Transform plate
boundaries are where plates slide laterally past one another, producing shallow earthquakes but
little or no volcanic activity
.
● Earth’s Atmosphere
1. Identify the natural mechanisms that have altered the composition of the atmosphere over time
These have been caused by many natural factors, including changes in the sun, emissions from
volcanoes, variations in Earth's orbit and levels of carbon dioxide.
2. Explain how the greenhouse effect contributes to global warming
Certain gases in the atmosphere absorb energy, slowing or preventing the loss of heat to space.
Those gases are known as “greenhouse gases.” They act like a blanket, making the earth warmer
than it would otherwise be. This process, commonly known as the “greenhouse effect,” is natural
and necessary to support life. Infrared light cannot pass through glass.
Water is the most common greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse heating comes from water. The water vapor keeps global temperature 30 celcius
degrees warmer, keeps us from being frozen.
● Earth’s Magnetic Field
1. Discuss the origin of Earth’s magnetic field
Earth's magnetic field is powered by the solidification of the planet's liquid iron core. The
cooling and crystallization of the core stirs up the surrounding liquid iron, creating powerful
electric currents that generate a magnetic field stretching far out into space.
2. Explain how the Aurora Borealis is produced
When a solar storm comes toward us, some of the energy and small particles can travel down the
magnetic field lines at the north and south poles into Earth's atmosphere.
The Moon
●
The Earth-Moon System
1. Explain what is meant by synchronous rotation, including
the rotation of an object that always shows the same face to an object that it is orbiting because
its rotation period and orbital period are equal.
a) the most obvious consequence of the Moon’s synchronous rotation
b) the physical mechanism that has caused the Moon to rotate synchronously
synchronous tidal locking, All the solar system’s large moons are tidally locked with their
planets. The bigger moons synchronize early in their existence, within hundreds of thousands of
orbits.
2. Explain how ocean tides are produced, and why there are two high tides and two low tides
each day
Because the Earth rotates through two tidal “bulges” every lunar day, coastal areas
experience two high and two low tides every 24 hours and 50 minutes. High tides occur 12 hours
and 25 minutes apart. It takes six hours and 12.5 minutes for the water at the shore to go from
high to low, or from low to high.
3. Describe the inevitable consequence of tidal interactions between the Earth and Moon
● The Moon’s Surface
1. Distinguish between maria & highlands
Lunar highlands are heavily cratered and mountainous.
Maria are large, dark, basaltic plains on Earth's Moon, formed by ancient asteroid impacts.
2. Explain the origin of the lunar maria
Really big asteroid impacts as well as melting and eruption of basaltic lava onto the lunar surface
between 3.8 to about 2.8 billion years ago
3. Describe the topographic difference between the lunar nearside and farside
On the nearside, the Moon has a low topography and thin crust, whereas on the farside, the Moon
has a high topography and thick crust.
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Mercury
● Dynamical Characteristics
1. Describe Mercury’s unusual orbital and rotational characteristics
Oribital period 88 days
Rotation period 59 days
Mercury rotates 3 times for every 2 trips around the sun.
Surface temperature 700f
Nightime 88 days
1000-degree temp change between day and nighttime
2. What is meant by a 3:2 spin-orbit coupling?
instead, Mercury is tidally locked into the 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, in which the ratio of the spin
rate to its orbital rate is locked to 3:2.
● Physical Characteristics
1. Describe the environmental conditions on Mercury
Mercury’s surface temperatures are both
extremely hot and cold. Because the planet is so close to the Sun, day temperatures can reach
highs of 800°F (430°C). Without an atmosphere to retain that heat at night, temperatures can dip
as low as -290°F (-180°C).
2. Describe the predominant geologic landforms on Mercury and their origin
intercrater plains, (b) the Caloris Basin, and (c) sparsely cratered younger lava flows called
smooth plains. Impact craters.
3. Discuss the anomalously high mean density of Mercury
Hight density suggests that it has a large iron core.
We don’t understand why it has a big iron core.
Possibly because of collision scenarios
Very heavily cratered
Scarps look like wrinkles, compressional forces
Take a rug and push two ends together
Like a grape to a rasin
Venus
● Dynamical Characteristics
1. Describe Venus’ unusual orbital and rotational characteristics
orbital period 225 days
rotation period 243 days (backwards!)
about the same size and mass of the earth
2. What is a transit and how frequently do transits of Venus occur?
Transits of Venus happens every 80 years or so
They come in pairs 2004, 2012
A transit occurs when a planet passes between a star and its observer.
● Environmental Conditions
1. Compare/contrast the environmental conditions on Earth and Venus, including
Venus has no surface water, a toxic, heavy atmosphere made up almost entirely of carbon dioxide
with clouds of sulphuric acid and at the surface the atmospheric pressure is over 90 times that of
the Earth at sea-level.
Venus: 867°F (464°C)
Earth; partly cloudy, high temp 70f low temp 40f. pressure 1 atm
Venus; always overcast, sulfuric acid clouds carbon dioxide atmosphere.
96% co2 3% n2 1%h2so4 high temp 887f low temp 884. Pressure 90 eatm
1300lbs per square inch wind calm 10% chance of acid rain
c) cloud cover
very high albedo
d) significant winds & weather
2. With regard to the greenhouse effect,
Earth's greenhouse gas atmosphere has an average of 78.9% absorption efficiency of terrestrial
radiation (f = 0.789), while we assume Venus' atmosphere has a near 100% absorption efficiency
(f = 1) due to its denser, CO2-rich atmosphere.
a) identify the gasses responsible for the greenhouse effect on Venus and Earth
CO2
b) explain why the greenhouse effect is much more severe on Venus than on the Earth
The Venusian atmosphere is mainly made up of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. On Earth,
carbon dioxide makes up only a tiny fraction of the atmosphere.
● Geology and Surface History
1. Describe the strategy employed by orbiting spacecraft to map the surface of Venus
The satellite Beams radio waves to the surface and as the radio waves
bounce off, the spacecraft
can measure the time delay. Microwave radiation is used to penetrate the thick atmosphere and
map the surface of Venus. the surface features using the intensity of radar return (echo), either
due to surface roughness or orientation.
2. What is the difference between radar-bright and radar-dark images?
Radar images highlight the differences in surface roughness, geometry, and moisture content of
objects on the surface. Bright areas represent rugged terrain, dark means smoother terrain
3. Describe some of the major geological landforms on Venus
Volcanoes!
4. Identify the predominant geological activity on Venus today
Tectonics active, Volcanism appears to be the dominant agent of geological change on Venus.
Mars
● History
1. Discuss Mars in popular culture over the years, including the work of Percival Lowell
Giovanni Schiaparelli during the planet's Great Opposition of 1877, he observed a dense
network of linear structures on the surface of Mars which he called “canali” ...
Percival fueled speculation that there were canals on Mars, he deduced the existence of an
advanced Martian civilization.
Orbital period 1.9 years
Rotation period 24.6 hours
Martian days are called sols – short for "solar day." A year on Mars lasts 669.6 sols, which is the
same as 687 Earth days.
Every 26 months mars comes into opposition
● Environmental Conditions
1. Compare/contrast the environmental conditions on Earth and Mars, including
Dust devils and storms
a) surface temperature
The average temperature on Mars is minus 80 degrees Fahrenheit
atmosphere contains more than 95% carbon dioxide and much less than 1% oxygen.
b) atmospheric pressure
6.518 millibars or 0.095 psi as compared to the Earth's sea level atmospheric pressure of 14.7
psi.
c) cloud cover
The clouds consist of water ice condensed on reddish dust particles suspended in the atmosphere.
Clouds on Mars are sometimes localized and can sometimes cover entire regions
d) significant winds & weather
studies of dust storms, cloud movements, and wind streaks suggest that winds can blow up to
100 kilometers per hour (62 mph).
● Geology & Topography
1. Describe the global topography of Mars, including the dichotomy between the northern plains
and southern highlands
The northern lowlands comprise about one-third of the surface of Mars and are relatively flat,
with as many impact craters as the southern hemisphere. The other two-thirds of the Martian
surface are the highlands of the southern hemisphere.
2. Describe some of the prominent geological landforms on Mars, and explain
Southern highlands, Hellas basin, The common surface features of Mars include dark slope
streaks, dust devil tracks, sand dunes, Medusae Fossae Formation, fretted terrain, layers, gullies,
glaciers, scalloped topography, chaos terrain, possible ancient rivers, pedestal craters, brain
terrain, and ring mold craters.
a) the origin of the canyon system Valles Marineris
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Valles Marineris was formed by rift faults, later enlarged by erosion and collapsing of the rift
walls, tectonic region.
b) why volcanoes in the Tharsis region of Mars are much larger than terrestrial volcanoes
tharsis rise, plateau, region that has been uplifted, enormous volcanoes, system of canyons, valles
marineris.
● Water on Mars
1. Identify where water currently resides on Mars
Mars has water trapped in the polar ice caps. More water may lie just beneath the surface.
2. Draw a phase diagram for water, and use it to explain why liquid water is not stable at the
surface of Mars
the phase diagram shows, in pressure–temperature space, the lines of equilibrium or phase
boundaries between the three phases of solid , liquid , and gas . t
he lowest pressure at
which water is liquid is that of the
triple point
: 273.15 K and 611.73 Pa. That
pressure is about 0.006 atmospheres. the surface pressure on Mars at around
636 Pa, from which we conclude that there is just barely room for water to be a
liquid in a very narrow temperature band above the Earthly freezing
temperature
3. Cite evidence which suggests that Mars once had liquid water in great abundance
Deltas usually require deep water over a long period of time to form. Also, the water level needs
to be stable to keep sediment from washing away.
Features on mars that look like rivers, valley
networks, runoff channels, water erosion.
Hydrated materials, concretions, fossilized ripples
4. Discuss the possible implications of liquid water on Mars, both past and present
Very low atmospheric pressure,
5. Explain how the Martian climate may have deteriorated to its present state
Its atmosphere is polluted with dust,
wind erosion.
Carbon dioxide ice crystal clouds
solar wind and radiation were responsible for most of the atmospheric loss on Mars,
Dust storms are seasonal on mars. Dust devils look like tornadoes but are entirely different
The Outer Planets
● Briefly describe the purpose and importance of the Voyager II spacecraft
Voyager II used a unique alignment of the planets that repeats only every 200 years, The planets
were positioned in such a way that the spacecraft could use a “gravity assist” maneuver to go
from one planet to the next. Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft to study all four of the solar
system's giant planets at close range.
● Describe some of the distinguishing physical characteristics of Jupiter & Saturn, including
Jupiter’s Great Red Spot (GRS) is the largest of many oval-shaped storm systems in its
atmosphere. It displays a cyclonic circulation much like a terrestrial hurricane.
a) rotation
Jupiter has an orbital period of 12 years.
One rotation equals 10 hours.
300x the mass of earth.
Saturn has an orbital period of 30 years.
One rotation equals 10 hours.
95x the mass of earth.
b) the structure of their interiors
At greater depths, pressures become so great that the gaseous hydrogen.
turns to a liquid. the bulk of Jupiter is liquid, not gas!
Atmosphere: Gaseous Hydrogen & Helium, Outer core: Liquid hydrogen, Inner core: liquid
metallic hydrogen. Heavier elements, like iron and
nickel, would have sunk down to Jupiter’s center when it became differentiated.
Saturn’s interior is nearly identical to Jupiter.
c) atmosphere and cloud features
Jupiter has a very thick atmosphere of hydrogen and helium gas
Our knowledge of Jupiter’s interior comes from computer modeling, as well as gravity
measurements from orbiting spacecraft.
The clouds (made mostly of ammonia compounds in the form of ice crystal
)
of Jupiter and
Saturn are arranged in a pattern of alternating light and dark stripes, the dark spots are called
Belts,
while the bright stripes are called
zones.
by Unknown Author is licensed under
● Explain the difference between belts and zones on the Jovian planets;
The zones are cold, high-
altitude clouds. The darker belts are a lower, warmer cloud layer. Jupiter’s atmosphere has
convective motions, and the brighter zones are clouds that form at the tops of rising columns of
air. This applies to Saturn as well.
● With regard to the ring systems of the Jovian planets,
a) Discuss the nature and origin of planetary rings
They form when asteroids, comets, or any other large objects pass too close to the planet and are
torn apart by the planet's gravity.
b) Describe how ring particles of different sizes affect the reflection & scattering of sunlight
Very small particles will scatter sunlight forward while larger particles will scatter the sunlight
backward.
c) Describe the mechanisms responsible for the complex structure in the ring systems, including
1) the role of shepherding moons
The tiny moons can also act as shepherd satellites. Two shepherd satellites with one orbiting
slightly outside the other satellite's orbit can constrain or shepherd the ring particles to stay
between the moonlet orbits.
2) the role of orbital resonances
Bigger gaps in the rings (such as the Cassini division) are the result of gravitational resonances
with the moons of Saturn. An orbital resonance occurs when two satellites have orbital periods
that are related by integer relationships, allowing them to exert a gravitational influence over
each other and affecting the eccentricity of their orbits.
3) the cause of wave disturbances
The material in Saturn’s rings is so densely packed that sometimes the rings act like a fluid, and
exhibits wave phenomena.
Density waves are caused by small moons that have eccentric orbits,
coming closer to the rings, then moving farther away.
● Describe the circumstances surrounding the discoveries of Uranus and Neptune
Uranus and Neptune are much smaller than Jupiter and Saturn. They are also twins.
Uranus was the first planet to be “discovered” by William Herschel around the time of the
American revolution. (originally wanted to name it after king George (our nemesis)).
Neptune’s discovery was actually predicted, the co discoverers were john couch adams and
urbain le vierrier.
● Describe some of the distinguishing physical characteristics of Uranus and Neptune,
including
a) rotation
Neptune
Orbital period 165 years
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Rotation period 16 hours
4x the diameter of earth
17x the mass of earth.
Uranus
Orbital period 84 years\
Rotation period 18 hours
4x the diameter of earth
15x the mass of earth
b) the structure of their interiors
c) atmosphere and cloud features
d) magnetic fields
● Discuss Pluto’s new status as a “dwarf planet”, particularly with regard to its
a) physical characteristics
b) orbital characteristics
c) relationship with KBO’s (Kuiper Belt Objects)
Moons of the Outer Solar System
● With regard to Jupiter's Galilean satellites,
a) briefly describe their distinguishing surface features
b) cite evidence for sub-surface oceans on Europa
c) describe the mechanism thought to be responsible for the volcanic activity on Io, and cite
evidence that supports this explanation
● Briefly describe the unique nature or physical characteristics of
a) Enceladus (Saturn)
biggest of Saturn’s moon
very icy
brightest object in solar system
.99 albedo
Northern hemisphere little craters
Southern no craters
Warmest places are along the cracks (tiger stripes)
South pole geysers
Tidally heated
Tectonic activity
Liquid below surface
When Saturn is illuminated from behind you can see a big fuzzy ring
b) Titan (Saturn)
350 degrees below freezing
the only moon w an atmosphere mostly nitrogen and methane 5%
thick hazy atmosphere
goes 200 miles above the surface.
cassini carried a radar penetrated haze.
discovery of lakes!
Only occur near north pole
Routinely rains.
Lakes contain liquid hydrocarbons.
Hydrogen and carbon fused together.
Natural gas can form together to rain.
Methane, ethane, propane, butane, acetylene.
Condensable gasses.
Methane is like water on earth.
Dunes! Prevailing wind
c) Triton (Neptune)
● Describe the nature and origin of the irregular satellites of the Jovian planets
Small Solar System Bodies
● Describe some of the physical and orbital characteristics of asteroids, and discuss the origin of
the asteroid belt.
● Describe the physical characteristics of comets, and discuss the processes that give rise to a
comet’s dust and plasma tails.
● With regard to the orbital characteristics of comets,
a) describe how long period comets differ from short period comets
b) describe how short period and long period comets are distributed throughout the solar system
c) explain how a short period comet can become a long period comet, and visa-versa
● Explain how a meteor, or "falling star" is produced, and differentiate between the terms
meteor, meteoroid, and meteorite.
● Explain why meteors are best observed in the pre-dawn hours before sunrise
● Discuss the origin of periodic meteor showers, and explain why most meteor showers are
associated with short period comets.
● Discuss the "asteroid impact" theory of the dinosaur extinctions, and cite evidence which
supports this theory.
● Discuss the potential impact threat from Near Earth Objects (NEO’s)
Other Planetary Systems
● Describe the basic problem that makes it difficult to see planets orbiting other stars
● Explain what the Doppler Effect is, what it allows us to measure, and give a commonplace
example.
● Briefly describe the radial velocity, or “wobble” method of exoplanet detection, and its
limitations.
● Briefly describe the transit method of exoplanet detection, and its limitations.
● Describe the most common types of exoplanets discovered so far, and how they differ from
planets in our solar system
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