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Hazard Exploration #1—Layers of the Earth: Attempt review
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ERTH031004-S23R-5103
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Week 2—All Roses & A Chocolate Covered Cherry :-) —due 13 February
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Hazard Exploration #1—Layers of the Earth
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Was the birth of the earth a violent process? A lot of new info on the birth of the earth has come to light in recent years! :-)
For an overview on the formation of the planets, my favorite source is the Birth of the Earth video! It is important to watch this video to answer to
next few questions in this homework assignment. :-)
Do you prefer reading instead of videos? For those students with a strong preference for reading, here's some text on the history of non-gaseous
planets in our solar system...
Approximately 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was a cloud of dust and gas known as a solar nebula. Gravity collapsed the material in on
itself as it began to spin, forming the sun in the center of the nebula. With the rise of the sun, the remaining material began
to clump up. Small
particles drew together, bound by the force of gravity, into larger particles. The solar wind swept away lighter elements, such as hydrogen and
helium, from the closer regions, leaving only heavy, rocky materials to create
smaller terrestrial worlds like Earth. But farther away, the solar
winds had less impact on lighter elements, allowing them to coalesce into gas giants. In this way,
asteroids,
comets, planets, and moons were
created.
When we speak of the earth's composition in terms of mineral content, we use the model pictured below, which provides names for the earth's
layers based on mineral content. Earth's inner
rocky core formed first, with heavy elements colliding and binding together to form dense minerals.
These dense materials sank to the center, while the lighter minerals stayed at the surface and created the crust. The materials that make up both
the crust and inner core are in a solid state. The planet's magnetic field probably formed around this time due to the movement of electrically
charged elements in the of the outer core, which is in a liquid state. The force of gravity is an effect produced by the mass of the earth, which
captured some of the gases that made up the planet's early atmosphere.
Early in its evolution, Earth suffered an impact by a large body that catapulted pieces of the young planet's mantle into space. Gravity caused
many of these pieces to draw together and form the moon, which took up orbit around its creator, the planet Earth.
The mantle is a layer that consists of relatively less dense minerals compared with the core and relatively more dense minerals compared with
the earth's crust.
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Although the population of comets and asteroids passing through the inner solar system is sparse today, they were more abundant when the
planets and sun were young. Collisions from these icy bodies likely deposited much of the Earth's water on its surface. Because the planet is in
the Goldilocks zone, the region where liquid water neither
freezes nor evaporates but can remain as a liquid, the water remained at the surface,
which many scientists think plays a key role in the
development of life.
Exoplanet observations seem to confirm core accretion as the dominant formation process. Stars with more "metals" — a term astronomers use
for elements other than hydrogen and helium — in their cores have more giant planets than their metal-poor cousins. According to
NASA, core
accretion suggests that small, rocky worlds should be more common than the more massive gas giants.
The 2005 discovery of a giant planet with a massive core orbiting the sun-like star HD 149026 is an example of an exoplanet that helped
strengthen the case for core accretion.
"This is a confirmation of the core accretion theory for planet formation and evidence that planets of this kind should exist in abundance," said
Greg Henry in a
press release. Henry, an astronomer at Tennessee State University, Nashville, detected the dimming of the star.
In 2017, the European Space Agency plans to launch the CHaracterising ExOPlanet Satellite (CHEOPS), which will study exoplanets ranging in
sizes from super-Earths to Neptune. Studying these distant worlds may help determine how planets in the solar system formed.
"In the core accretion scenario, the core of a planet must reach a critical mass before it is able to accrete gas in a runaway fashion," said
the
CHEOPS team.
"This critical mass depends upon many physical variables, among the most important of which is the rate of planetesimals
accretion." By studying how growing planets accrete material, CHEOPS will provide insight into how worlds grow!
Text adapted from:
https://www.space.com/19175-how-was-earth-formed.html
Evidence suggests the planet Earth formed from _______________________.
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Question 3
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Hint: the answer is in this week's video!
Select one:
a.
Repeated volcanic eruptions
b.
Accretion (accumulation by repeated impact) of asteroid debris
c.
Condensation of liquid nitrogen
d.
The big bang of a super nova
e.
Accretion (accumulation by repeated impact) of comet debris
What is the current consensus on the age of the Earth—determined by scientific investigation of all available evidence?
Hints
:
OPTION 1: I recommend watching the Birth of the Earth for fun facts like this!
OPTION 2:
Do some internet searching or visit the links in the Overview!
Select one:
a.
3.5 million years
b.
4.5 million years
c.
3.5 billion years
d.
4.5 billion years
e.
13.5 billion years
How has the currently scientifically accepted age of the Earth been precisely determined?
Hint: For an overview, my favorite is the Birth of the Earth video!
Select one:
a.
Relative dating of lava flows
b.
Cosmogenic dating of the craton
c.
Radiometric dating of meteorites
d.
Carbon dating of stromatolites
e.
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Question 5
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Which of the following data is NOT listed as a source of evidence in support of the accepted age for the planet Earth?
I highly recommend watching the Birth of the Earth video for great overall coverage of this topic.
Please also consider the following article, in addition to your text:
https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/earlyearth/questions/age.html
Select one:
a.
Radiometric dates of ancient sedimentary zircon
b.
Radiometric dates of meteorites
c.
Radiometric age of stromatolites
d.
Radiometric dates of Lunar samples
e.
Water probably didn’t exist on our planet right away... but the earliest detected water is still really old!
Mineral evidence suggests that on Earth, the first surface water—and possibly oceans—formed as early as
______________________________________.
Hint
: Consider the Birth of the Earth video as a cool source for the story.
Select one:
a.
4.2 billion years ago from volcanic gases
b.
4.2 billion years ago from fluid in meteorites
c.
4.2 million years ago from fluid in meteorites
d.
4.2 million years ago from volcanic gases
e.
4200 thousand years ago from volcanic gases
f.
4200 thousand years ago from fluid in meteorites
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The deepest interior of the earth is really hot... the temperature is estimated at
6,000 Centigrade
, which is about
10,800 degrees
Farenheit
).
That’s a bit warmer than your average dry sauna.
This internal heat is the driver of plate tectonics, but where does the heat come from??
It is important for us to understand temperature and methods of heat transfer. If you haven't already, please watch the following two short videos
on temperature and methods of heat transfer:
What is temperature? (An atomic view) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SUnEyFbqyZQ
Methods of Heat Transfer http://www.vtaide.com/png/heat2.htm
—
Based on your knowledge from the Birth of the Earth and the sources above, which of the following is NOT a significant source
of internal heat for the earth?
HINT: Consider the curve below, which shows how temperature (shown on the horizontal x-axis) INCREASES with depth below the
surface of the earth (shown on the vertical y-axis)! This plot shows that the temperature of the crust is way cooler than the temperature
of the earth's core... Why is this so? If the earth's core is hotter than the surface, the source of heat likely exists in the core,
right
?
Select one:
a.
Heat generated during the formation of the planet
b.
Heat released when liquid magma cooled to form the solid inner core
c.
Heat radiating to the earth from the sun
Ah, yes... we feel this temperature every day! But how
could this warm the core any more than it warms our
faces??
d.
Radioactive decay of elements in the earth’s mantle and core
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Pressure is a force applied per surface area (with units of force over a distance squared!)
You feel a pressure on your foot when someone steps on it!
If that person who treads on you is wearing spiked heels, their weight will exert more pressure
per square inch than if they wore tennis shoes.
This is because the sole of a spiked heel concentrates the force of their weight over
less surface area
than a tennis shoe.
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What is Pressure? Find out more here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GmTWhDlvAds
Pressure also varies based on the mass of the person who steps on your foot, right?
Believe it or not, the mass of the overlying material (or fluid in this case) is the reason for high pressures at great depths in the ocean.
The deeper into the ocean that a submarine travels, the more water lies above it. With more water comes more total, cumulative mass.
Thus, the force of pressure on the submarine is also greater.
---
Based on the videos and the above reading, complete the following sentence:
Earth materials at the earth’s surface only feel pressure from above due to the earth’s atmosphere.
A rock buried deep under the earth's surface, however, will feel ____________ pressure, due to the overlying load of rock.
Read carefully! :-)
Select one:
a.
Decreased
b.
Equal
c.
Increased
Yes! :-) At Earth's core, the pressure is 3.5 million
times higher than surface pressure.
d.
Zero
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Lava lamps are very retro and cool. They also perfectly illustrate a key internal Earth process called heat transfer.
Note: in the base of each lava lamp is an incandescent light bulb!
Which process of HEAT TRANSFER do lava lamps demonstrate?
More on heat transfer here and lava lamps!
http://www.vtaide.com/png/heat2.htm
and here!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DL3Ez9bxMTo
Select one:
a.
convection
b.
conduction
c.
convergence
d.
divergence
e.
radiation
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We also have a SIMILAR but DIFFERENT model for describing the earth's layers based on the way the rocks move and deform (rather
than simply their composition).
The lithosphere, which consists of the crust and the upper part of the mantle, is solid because it is cold.
Thus, the lithosphere is brittle (like TOFFEE or an ICE CUBE!) When it breaks, we feel an earthquake
.
The asthenosphere is also solid, because the pressure at that depth beneath earth's surface is so great! Still, believe it or not, rock in the
asthenosphere can also actually flow (very very slowly!!) when forces apply pressure on the rock in the asthenosphere.
Rock in the asthenosphere actually circulates with a motion similar to the movement of material inside a lava lamp—this happens in response to
very high heat in the earth's core!
Which of the following LIQUID layers of the earth also flows due to the process of heat transfer called convection?
Select one:
a.
Crust
b.
Asthenosphere
c.
Lithosphere
d.
Inner Core
e.
Outer Core
Heat transfer due to convection in the asthenosphere is directly responsible for the motion of tectonic plates. The plates form in the most brittle
layer.
Choose the most accurate statement below:
Select one:
a.
Heat and convection currents move plates made of the
lithosphere
Yes! These currents happen in the solid asthenosphere because it flows like
toothpaste! The currents produce drag along the underside of the tectonic
plates that make up the lithosphere.
b.
Heat and convection currents move plates made of the asthenosphere
c.
Heat and convection currents move plates made of the mantle
d.
Heat and convection currents move plates made of the outer core
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Perhaps you are wondering... how do we know which layers of the earth are solid and which are liquid??
One method for measuring the state of matter in the various layers of the earth uses both earthquakes and geophysics!
When an earthquake happens, energy stored in the earth's crust is released and travels through all the earth’s layers in energy waves. These
waves are called seismic waves
. Geophysicists calculate the velocity of seismic waves at various locations around the globe with the help of
seismometers, which detect the wave's arrival at the location where the seismometer is installed. :-)
Example travel paths for two types of seismic waves are shown in the figure above. These types of seismic waves are called S (pink
lines!) and P waves (blue lines!) The waves signify the movement or propagation of seismic “energy” through earth materials, by the
shaking and bouncing of rocks that are adjacent to one another and in contact.
"S-type waves" are unique, because they do NOT travel through liquid matter. Thus, S-type waves will never pass through the outer
core and arrive on the other side of the planet earth. If we didn't already know that the outer core is liquid, we could surmise this based
on the observation that S-type waves do NOT travel through this layer and arrive on the other side of planet earth.
--
Interestingly, "P-type" seismic waves travel more rapidly through solid rocks than loose gravel or soil... Solid rocks do not scatter the
seismic energy in a chaotic way (but sediments do!) Instead solid rocks move with the wave and are able to transfer seismic energy to
the next adjacent rock. Solid rocks transmit energy with strength and clarity, like bells or tuning forks!
--
Consider the plots below. These show curves that indicate GREATER (faster!) seismic wave velocities at INCREASED depth below the earth’s
surface.
Remember: higher wave velocities mean that those earth materials transmit the waves better—like tuning forks!
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In general, these curves show that seismic wave velocities tend to _____________ with increasing depth, indicating that rocks at depths
up to ~160 km are clearly still _____________ due to very high (and increasing) pressures.
Thirsty for more info?
Seismic Slinky—Earthquake Wave Tutorial
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KZaI4MEWdc4&t=2s
Seismic Waves Reveal Earth's Interior
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=aY6SG7GPAlo
http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/~cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes/waves_and_interior.html
Select one:
a.
increase, solid
b.
increase, liquid
c.
decrease, liquid
d.
decrease, solid
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The general example in the previous question demonstrates increasing seismic wave velocities at relatively shallow depths below the earth's
surface. This is because increased pressures below the surface of the earth keeps rocks solid in the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.
Now, consider the plot below, which shows seismic wave velocities measured at depths as great as the inner core!!
Remember that dense, rigid materials (aka solids!) help seismic waves move fast. In contrast, fluids are weak and do not transmit P-type seismic
energy waves as well. (Liquids tend to dissipate the jiggling motion of the seismic waves!)
The curve on these plots show changes in seismic wave velocity vs. depth.
The plots show relatively HIGH seismic wave velocities overall, except at depths that correspond to the inner core.
Based on these plots of data, we can see that the waves slow down as they enter the layer of the earth is not solid but instead liquid. The inner
core is liquid that was melted by very high TEMPERATURES at this depth.
---
Based on these observations, which of the following funny food / object analogs best describes the internal structure of the earth
overall?
These plots, your reading, and both videos all point to one single answer. :-)
Select one:
a.
An orange (a thin solid, rigid peel with a durable, but watery inside)
b.
A bowling ball (completely solid all the way through)
c.
An egg (liquid at the yolk core, surrounded by liquid in the white, and then a hard outer shell)
d.
A geode (hollow at the center with a strong, hard, outside layer)
e.
A chocolate covered cherry (solid at the core surrounded by a durable but soft inner layer, then covered in a thin solid coating)
f.
A soft boiled egg (hard and brittle solid at the surface with a soft, liquid center)
If the brittle lithosphere consists of individual solid plates of rock and the asthenosphere is a crystal mush that flows very slowly, w
hy
don't the tectonic plates just sink to great depths and melt?
Select one:
a.
Because the asthenosphere is more dense than the lithosphere
b.
Because the inner core is more dense than the asthenosphere
c.
Because the asthenosphere is less dense than the lithosphere
d.
Because the inner core is less dense than the asthenosphere
e.
Because the mantle is more dense than the crust
Your answer is correct.
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Take a moment to compare and contrast the lithosphere and asthenosphere in terms of composition, temperature, and density on
paper...
--
Reminders:
What is temperature? (An atomic view) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SUnEyFbqyZQ
Density and Buoyancy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SimFy9wOMXY
5 Key Facts about Density https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zlkpZZW29b0
---
Why do some people think it's correct to say the lithosphere "floats" on the asthenosphere?
Select one:
a.
Because the lithosphere is less dense, it sits buoyantly on the asthenosphere.
b.
Because the lithosphere is more dense, it sits buoyantly on the asthenosphere.
c.
Because the asthenosphere is warmer, it sits buoyantly on the asthenosphere.
d.
Because the lithosphere is cooler, it sits buoyantly on the asthenosphere.
e.
All of these
Your answer is correct.
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Shown below is a figure that uses color to describe the elevation of earth's surface relative to sea level. (Higher elevations are warmer in color
(e.g., red) and lower elevations are cooler in color.)
In general, there is a distinct contrast in surface elevation (or topography!) between the ocean basins and the continents. Most of the oceans are
blue, right?
Please assume that this effect is a result of contrasting density for the different lithospheric plates (e.g., continental vs. oceanic).
If a lithospheric plate is more dense, it will be less buoyant. If a lithospheric plate is less dense, it will be more buoyant.
Refresher video on density and buoyancy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SimFy9wOMXY
Study the elevation differences and identify the patterns... If the elevation differences are due to differences in density (and differences in
buoyancy) than we can infer which type of lithospheric plate is more dense... right?
For example, if two blocks made of two different materials---one wooden and one styrofoam---which of these two blocks will "float less" or sink
lower into the asthenosphere?
Based on the color map (and with that answer in mind) which type of lithospheric plate is relatively
more dense?
Select one:
a.
ocean
b.
continent
c.
asthenosphere
d.
moho
e.
crust
f.
mantle
Your answer is correct.
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As geologists, we love minerals mainly for 2 reasons: 1) they are pretty, and 2) many rocks are made of minerals!
What are Minerals?
To meet the definition of "mineral" used by most geologists, a substance must meet five requirements:
naturally occurring
inorganic
solid
definite chemical composition
ordered internal structure
"Naturally occurring" means that people did not make it. Steel is not a mineral because it is an alloy produced by people. "Inorganic" means that
the substance is not made by an organism. Wood and pearls are made by organisms and thus are not minerals. "Solid" means that it is not a
liquid or a gas at standard temperature and pressure.
"Definite chemical composition" means that all occurrences of that mineral have a chemical composition that varies within a specific limited range.
For example: the mineral halite (known as "rock salt" when it is mined) has a chemical composition of NaCl. It is made up of an equal number of
atoms of sodium and chlorine.
Structure of the mineral halite:
The mineral "halite" has a chemical composition of NaCl. That means it contains equal numbers of sodium and
chloride atoms. In this case they are electrically charged atoms, known as ions. Those ions are arranged in a cubic pattern that repeats in all
directions. The small sodium ions are positioned between the larger chloride ions.
Here's more info on the terminology used on the definition of a mineral...
"Ordered internal structure" means that the atoms in a mineral are arranged in a systematic and repeating pattern. The structure of the mineral
halite is shown in the illustration on this page. Halite is composed of an equal ratio of sodium and chlorine atoms arranged in a cubic pattern.
Did You Know?
Although liquid water is not a mineral, it is a mineral when it
freezes. Ice is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical
composition and an ordered internal structure.
Learn more.
The Word "Mineral"
The word "mineral" is used in many different ways. The definition given above is a formal definition preferred by geologists.
The word also has a nutritional meaning. It is used in reference to the many inorganic chemicals that organisms need to grow, repair tissue,
metabolize, and carry out other body processes. Mineral nutrients for the human body include: iron, calcium,
copper,
sulfur, phosphorus,
magnesium and many others.
An archaic use of the word "mineral" comes from the Linnaean taxonomy in which all things can be assigned to the animal, vegetable, and mineral
kingdoms.
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The word "mineral" is also used inconsistently in geology. In mining, anything obtained from the ground and used by man is considered to be a
"mineral commodity" or a "mineral material." These include: crushed stone, which is a manufactured product made from crushed rocks; lime,
which is a manufactured product made from limestone or marble (both composed of the mineral calcite);
coal which is organic;
oil and gas which
are organic fluids; rocks such as
granite that are mixtures of minerals; and, rocks such as
obsidian which do not have a definite composition and
ordered internal structure.
For additional explanation, feel free to browse this webpage:
https://geology.com/minerals/what-is-a-mineral.shtml
--
All minerals are made up of chemical elements, which are listed in the periodic table of elements below:
Here are some of the most common minerals! Minerals are the building blocks of all rocks.
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What is a mineral? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rTXSwnkieZc
https://geologycafe.com/class/chapter3.html
--
Here's your question!
Sugar ___________because______________.
Select one:
a.
is a mineral, it meets all 5 requirements
b.
is not a mineral, it does not have an orderly internal structure
c.
is not a mineral, it is organic
d.
is not a mineral, it is not a solid
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When minerals are combined, they form rocks:
What is a Rock?
Rocks ordinarily lie everywhere on the ground of the Earth. They constitute most of the landforms, as we often notice. For instance, rocks make up
the mountains and most of the non-water portions of the earth’s surface. A rock is hence defined as a solid naturally occurring mass of
consolidated mineral or mineral-like matter. This is because rocks are made up of granules of different minerals that form bigger and hard masses.
In simple terms, a rock is made up of two or more minerals, but rocks can also contain organic compounds. For this reason, rocks do not qualify
as minerals, according to the definition of a mineral. Rocks occur in different shapes, colors, weights, strengths, sizes, and texture. Rocks also
change from one form to another and differ from one region to another because of the rock cycle. These changes usually take thousands or
millions of years. Rocks are also mainly porous or non-porous in nature.
A rock is:
A solid
Naturally occurring
Is made up of minerals or mineral like matter.
--
Again, rocks can also contain materials that are not minerals...
Coal is a great example of a rock that is made of organic materials. For this reason, coal is not called a mineral.
2023/6/5 22:39
Hazard Exploration #1—Layers of the Earth: Attempt review
https://ilearn.sfsu.edu/ay2223/mod/quiz/review.php?attempt=394034&cmid=391431
20/21
Question 18
Correct
Mark 1.00 out of 1.00
Please complete the following sentence:
Gold _____________ because______________.
Select one:
a.
is a mineral, it meets all 5 requirements
b.
is not a mineral, it does not have an orderly internal structure
c.
is not a mineral, it is organic
d.
is not a mineral, it does not have a definite chemical composition
Which of the following best describes an isotope?
Select one:
a.
An atom that has gained or lost electrons and has an electrical charge.
b.
An atom that has bonded with another atom to form a molecule.
c.
An atom that has changed into another atom through loss or gain of protons.
d.
An atom that has more or fewer neutrons than protons.
2023/6/5 22:39
Hazard Exploration #1—Layers of the Earth: Attempt review
https://ilearn.sfsu.edu/ay2223/mod/quiz/review.php?attempt=394034&cmid=391431
21/21
Question 19
Correct
Mark 1.00 out of 1.00
Consider the pie charts below. These are fun, because they describe the most common elements that compose the earth's minerals and rocks!
Remember that the earth’s crust is the uppermost layer at the earth’s surface, and it is identified based on it’s mineral composition.
Compare the two dominant elements found within Earth's CRUST with the two dominant elements found within the ENTIRE
earth.
Which dominant element pair is more dense?
OPTION 1
: Please look back at the periodic table, which gives the atomic weight for each element, and determine the answer to the
question above.
OPTION 2
: Please search the internet to learn more!
Select one:
a.
oxygen and iron
That's right! Metals are more dense
than non-metals
b.
oxygen and aluminum
c.
oxygen and silicon
d.
oxygen and magnesium
Layer of the Earth Overview!
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Extra: Graphs for Layers of the Earth San Francisco State University
A California State University Campus
Academic Technology
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