Understanding Food Insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Analysis

1 2-1 Final Project Milestone One: Statement of Purpose and Research Question ATH-489 Arianna Reiley Title of Final Paper: Understanding Food Insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Anthropological Perspective

2 Table of Contents Introduction Background and Specifics of Problem Anthropological Research Question Relationship and Value to Anthropology Conclusion Works Cited

3 Introduction This final paper aims to address the issue of food insecurity as it relates to environmental sustainability, examined through an anthropological lens. Food insecurity refers to the "lack of consistent access to enough food for every person in a household to live an active, healthy life" (“USDA ERS - Food Security in the U.S.,” 2022). Food insecurity is an urgent and pervasive global issue, impacting millions of families and individuals and leading to negative consequences in their health, personal well-being, and stability. This problem is rooted in the complex structure of our society and influenced by a number of factors, such as the condition of our environment, economic disparities, social injustice and inequalities, and government policies. For this white paper, the focus will be on how environmental factors such as global warming, climate change, and unsustainable practices relate to the food security crisis, with Sub-Saharan Africa as the location focus. Background and Specifics of Problem History of Food Insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa The issue of food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa is by no means a recent one. The issue is deeply rooted in the history of the region and has persisted over time. This part of the world has consistently faced food security challenges for centuries due to a variety of constantly evolving factors. Before European colonization of the region, Sub-Saharan Africa maintained sustainable agricultural practices (Vibeke Bjornlund, et al, 2022). Colonization introduced the production of cash crops and agricultural systems that emphasized colonial needs as opposed to the needs of local populations. These systems destroyed food production and supply chains, causing the economy of the region to regress (Jedwab & Moradi, 2016). In the post-

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4 independence era, Sub-Saharan Africa continued to struggle with food production due to internal conflicts, political instability, and continuous economic challenges ( Finlayson, 2019). Land was repurposed for colonial use, limiting the production and availability of food in the region. Additionally, Sub-Saharan Africa has consistently faced environmental issues that further increase food insecurity. Sub-Saharan Africa has been significantly harmed by the environmental impacts of climate change, experiencing extreme weather events, drastic fluctuations in average temperature and rainfall, and long-lasting droughts, all of which further limit agricultural production (Omotoso, et al, 2023). The region is also at risk for desertification, caused and exacerbated by climate change and human activity (Finlayson, 2019). The site map below serves to show the vulnerability of Sub-Saharan Africa's landscape. Figure 1:Sub-Saharan Land Vulnerability (Finlayson, 2019)

5 Environmental Impacts The state of the environment in Sub-Saharan Africa directly impacts the food security crisis. A variety of environmental factors influence the production and distribution of food, in turn influencing the sustainability of the region. This region is particularly at risk when it comes to climate change and global warming, experiencing fluctuating temperatures, unpredictable rainfall, periods of extreme drought and water scarcity, and extreme weather events, all of which “has a negative significant effect on food security in Sub-Saharan Africa” (Ahmed Adefemi Adesete, et al, 2022). Rising temperatures are an issue worldwide, but in a hot and dry landscape like Sub-Saharan Africa, this is especially an issue. The increase in temperature negatively impacts the growth of crops, as well as contributing to diseases and pests that further harm food production in the region. Rising temperatures and unpredictable rainfall go hand in hand with the periods of drought that this region faces. Sub-Saharan Africa is highly reliant on rainfall for crops and livestock; after periods of drought and dry spells, crop-yields are reduced, and livestock are depleted. Paired with extreme weather events such as flooding and hurricanes, the region's agricultural infrastructure is at risk. Alongside the various effects of climate change, Sub-Saharan Africa also experiences the harmful effects of land degradation, deforestation, and unsustainable agricultural practices. Following the period of colonization in the region, Sub- Saharan Africa has experienced mass deforestation, chemical use in farming and production, overgrazing, and soil erosion. All of these factors, combined with competition over resources, contribute to the ongoing food security crisis in the region. Social Impacts As previously stated, the food security crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa also has many social impacts. Not only does food insecurity affect the general well-being of the population, but it has direct

6 impacts on societal conflict and the physical and mental health of the population as well. Food security often leads to conflict and social unrest. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the competition over resources can lead to internal conflict, population displacement, and migration. In a region where resources such as fertile land for crops and livestock and viable sources of water are already limited, competition over these resources leads to conflict. Competition over these resources leads to more disruption in the production and distribution of food, further exacerbating the effects of food insecurity. In turn, conflict and food insecurity can lead to populations being cut off from their communities, whether it's through the loss of food, jobs, or support. All of this can lead to the migration of populations to areas with more fertile land, job opportunities, and resources, which perpetuates the cycle of competition and resource strain. Food insecurity and the conflict that arises because of it also results in psychological and social strain. The lack of available nutrition and the fear of being unable to provide for one's household can lead to stress, anxiety, and depression. Paired with strained relationships within a community due to social conflict, the resilience of a community can be negatively impacted. Anthropological Research Question The primary purpose of this research paper is to gain a deeper understanding and conduct an anthropological analysis of the relationship between food security and environmental sustainability in Sub-Saharan Africa. In order to effectively address the topic of food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa, the research question posed is as follows: “How do environmental issues such as climate change and resource scarcity, as well as cultural and social dynamics, impact the ongoing crisis of food security in Sub-Saharan Africa,

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7 and how can anthropology be used in the development of sustainable practices and initiatives to address the relationship between the two?” This research question highlights the complex relationship between food insecurity and environmental sustainability and allows for an in-depth anthropological assessment by addressing multiple factors. It includes an examination of the environmental factors at play, such as the various impacts of climate change and global warming, as well as acknowledging the direct effect that these issues have on food production and distribution in the region. It also highlights that this issue is not caused solely by environmental factors, but social factors as well. Lastly, it emphasizes the need for an anthropological perspective; anthropology can provide a background of knowledge and insight to come up with sustainable solutions to the food security crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa. Research Value Anthropology is the study of cultures and human societies and as such it is a field well- suited for the delve into the complexities of food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa. The anthropological theory that will be used to assess this research question is ecological anthropology, a theory that focuses on the relationship between human societies and the environment. This theory aims to understand how our environment shapes and changes human culture and behavior, and as such is both relevant and valuable to the fields of environmental sustainability and anthropology. In terms of environmental sustainability, the research question acknowledges that food insecurity is not just an environmental challenge, but also a social and cultural one as well. It highlights that both environmental and human factors need to be considered in order to develop sustainable solutions to the food security crisis. Environmental sustainability is not just about the environment, but about the success and well-being of

8 communities as well. This research question contributes to the field of environmental sustainability by assessing how sustainable actions and initiatives can better serve to solve the food security crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa. This serves as the bridge between research and application, allowing for action. This question also highlights that this topic is interdisciplinary at its core, as is environmental sustainability as a field. It serves to highlight the importance for multiple perspectives and backgrounds in order to address a complex, multi-faceted challenge like food insecurity. When it comes to anthropology as a whole, this research question and applied theory aligns with the anthropological study of how humans and their environment interact, and how populations adapt over time. Not only does anthropology aim to understand human history, but it also seeks to provide solutions for real-world problems with long-term success in mind. This research question takes into account various main principles of anthropology, such as in depth ethical research, cultural understanding, and real-world application. Application of Theory Cultural Ecology Ecological anthropology is an anthropological subfield that first made its appearance in the 1960’s, largely shaped by the work of anthropologists Julian Steward and Leslie White. This theory can be defined as “the study of the relations among the population dynamics, social organizations, and culture of human populations and the environments in which they live (Orlove, 1980).” As a theory, ecological anthropology serves to explore the complex relationships between humans and their environments, highlighting the influences of ecology on human behavior and adaptation. Ecological anthropology is suitable for assessing the food insecurity crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa, as this issue is both an environmental and human issue.

9 This theory considers how environmental factors and human behavior are linked and helps to highlight that this crisis cannot be examined without both ecological and human context. Application of Ecological Anthropology Through the lens of ecological anthropology, one can conduct an in-depth analysis of the relationship between environmental factors and the food security crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa. With this theory, we can understand how various environmental factors, like climate change, global warming, deforestation, land degradation, and resource scarcity contribute to this crisis. Environmental stressors that arise from climate change and global warming are a large part of the food security crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa (Ahmed Adefemi Adesete, et al, 2022). This region suffers from periods of unpredictable rainfall and periods of drought, both disrupting the cycle of food production and subsequently, food availability. Because of these environmental stressors, communities are required to adapt to their environment and come up with agricultural solutions, such as shifting planting and harvesting times, introducing drought-resistant crops, and implementing water-saving practices. This region also suffers from the effects of post- colonialism and urbanization such as land degradation and deforestation, which limit the viability of fertile land and precious resources needed to contribute to food security. In response, communities have come up with solutions for this as well, such as agroforestry and grazing management (Thomson Reuters Foundation, 2022). The competition for resources, like fertile land and water, largely contributes to food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa. Through the lens of ecological anthropology, it’s revealed that communities have come up with solutions for this, too, creating community-managed water stores in order to reduce conflicts. All of these adaptations are a clear link between the environment and how humans adapt and shift their behavior over time. By applying ecological anthropology, the complex and multi-

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10 faceted relationship between human behavior, culture, and the environment is able to be understood. This theory can help in appreciating the ways that humans interact with and adapt to their environment and can provide us with perspectives and knowledge to come up with sustainable solutions to the food security crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa. Ethical Analysis Anthropological theory can be used to ethically analyze the food security crisis, but it requires careful consideration of various diverse perspectives. The theory of cultural relativism can be used by anthropologists in order to approach the issue with respect for cultural diversity, recognizing that any proposed solutions to food security must be seated within the context of cultural traditions as well as contributing to environmental sustainability. Anthropologists also need to be careful while navigating the ethical challenge of focusing on the immediate food needs of the population while also focusing on long-term environmental sustainability. A theory that can be used to further aid in approaching this crisis from an ethical standpoint is utilitarianism. Utilitarianism as a concept states that the "morally right action is the action that produces the most good" and considers the good of others as well as the good of the self (Driver, 2014). This concept challenges us to weigh the potential short-term benefits of things like industrial agriculture and other current solutions being used in the food security crisis against any long-term ecological consequences those solutions might pose. An ethical anthropological analysis of the food security crisis demands that we weigh the trade-offs of the current solutions at play while trying to come up with solutions that prioritize food security and environmental sustainability.

11 Literature Review Liette Connolly-Boutin, & Smit, B. (2015). Climate change, food security, and livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa. Regional Environmental Change , 16 (2), 385–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-015-0761-x This peer reviewed article recognizes climate change as a primary driving force behind the food security crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa. Published in the Regional Environmental Change journal, which features multidisciplinary perspectives on human and natural systems interactions, this paper emphasizes that climate change, adaptation, and food security are inherently linked, and places that emphasis within the context of Sub-Saharan Africa. This is an incredibly useful tool for this research question, as it provides a background for climate change and how it impacts the food security crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa, but also provides insights, strategies, and potential outcomes for solving the food security crisis. This is an incredibly strong source, and within the context of the research question, few weaknesses were found. Persistent Hunger: Perspectives on Vulnerability, Famine, and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa. (2013). Retrieved October 23, 2023, from Annual Reviews website: https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123224 This peer reviewed article presents a variety of topics related to the food security crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa, such as household livelihood security, historical events of famine, political conflict, and even the HIV/AIDS crisis. The strength of this article in the context of the research question is that it provides an anthropological perspective on each factor previously mentioned, but its weakness lies in the fact that it is too broad. While some of this information was relevant in providing historical and social context to the food security crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa, there

12 was little to no information about environmental factors. As such, it would not be used to provide an extensive analysis for the research question posed. Vibeke Bjornlund, Henning Bjørnlund, & Rooyen, van. (2022). Why food insecurity persists in sub-Saharan Africa: A review of existing evidence. Food Security , 14 (4), 845–864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-022-01256-1 This peer review article provides historical context and statistical evidence about various agricultural practices and how they relate to the food security crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa. Beyond providing historical background for the topic at hand, this article is informative when it comes to using ecological anthropology as a theory to answer the research question. Its historical data provides the basis for how the population in the region has adapted over time and offers practical solutions to the shortcomings of the practices that have been employed thus far. The weakness of this article is its emphasis on economics and politics, as opposed to the social and environmental factors behind the food security crisis. A strength of this article is the historical data and graphs provided, as they allow for application of the chosen anthropological theory. Abeeb Babatunde Omotoso, Letsoalo, S., Kehinde Oluseyi Olagunju, Tshwene, C., & Abiodun Olusola Omotayo. (2023). Climate change and variability in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review of trends and impacts on agriculture. Journal of Cleaner Production , 414 , 137487–137487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137487 This peer reviewed article goes even more in depth into the ways that the population of Sub-Saharan Africa has responded to the food security crisis. While it initially provides political and economic context to the problem, it expresses that environmental factors are a large part of the food security crisis. This article provides context for Africa's harsh climate and how its

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13 climate directly impacts the availability and quality of food production. The article assesses various trends and solutions of the past, as well as providing suggestions for the future based on current trends and statistical evidence. A weakness of this paper, within the context of the proposed research question, is the lack of anthropological perspective. While it provides an extensive overview on how climate change and the food security crisis are directly linked, it fails to provide insight on the ways that Africa's population has adapted over time. Conclusion The topic of food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa has multiple complex layers that require interdisciplinary perspectives to understand. The food security crisis is large influenced by environmental factors like climate change, global warming, and unsustainable practices, all of which force the population of Sub-Saharan African communities to adapt. This topic can be examined through the lens of ecological anthropology, which explores the relationship between the environment, culture, and human adaptation. As a perspective, ecological anthropology provides the necessary insights and background knowledge on how history, environmental factors, and human behavior are inherently linked, and can aid in coming up with sustainable practices for the future. In order to address the food security crisis, sustainable practices need to be specifically tailored to the needs of the environment and the community, ensuring that they are also culturally sensitive. Some proposed first steps towards tackling the food security crisis consist of raising awareness, providing aid through global initiatives and volunteer work, and employing sustainable practices such as reforestation, green agriculture technology, grazing management, and the introduction of resilient crops. Most importantly, however, any actions and initiatives presented as solutions to this crisis need to be ethical and backed by statistical evidence and should prioritize the rights and well-being of the affected communities.

14 The application of environmental sustainability principles and anthropological theories like ecological anthropology provide a basis for understanding how issues like food insecurity arise. It's how we apply those theories in the real world that we can enact change and create a more sustainable future.

15 Works Cited USDA ERS - Food Security in the U.S. (2017). Retrieved October 22, 2023, from Usda.gov website: https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/food-security-in-the-u- s/ Vibeke Bjornlund, Henning Bjørnlund, & Rooyen, van. (2022). Why food insecurity persists in sub-Saharan Africa: A review of existing evidence. Food Security , 14 (4), 845–864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-022-01256-1 Jedwab, R., & Moradi, A. (2016). The permanent effects of transportation revolutions in poor countries: Evidence from Africa. Review of Economics and Statistics , 98(2), 268–284. Finlayson, C. (2019, June 14). Sub-Saharan Africa. Retrieved October 22, 2023, from Pressbooks.pub website: https://pressbooks.pub/worldgeo/chapter/sub-saharan-africa/ Abeeb Babatunde Omotoso, Letsoalo, S., Kehinde Oluseyi Olagunju, Tshwene, C., & Abiodun Olusola Omotayo. (2023). Climate change and variability in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review of trends and impacts on agriculture. Journal of Cleaner Production , 414 , 137487–137487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137487 Ahmed Adefemi Adesete, Oluwanbepelumi Esther Olanubi, & R.O.S Dauda. (2022). Climate change and food security in selected Sub-Saharan African Countries. Environment, Development and Sustainability . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02681-0 Orlove, Benjamin (1980). Ecological Anthropology: Annual Review of Anthropology. Retrieved October 22, 2023, from Snhu.edu website: https://www-jstor- org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/stable/2155736?seq=4

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16 Driver, J. (2014). The History of Utilitarianism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Retrieved September 24, 2023, from Stanford.edu website: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/ Thomson Reuters Foundation. (2022). Here’s how to reverse Africa’s land degradation. Retrieved October 22, 2023, from news.trust.org website: https://news.trust.org/item/20220427132311-cqzwb/

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