Table of Contents Introduction I.1 What Is Oceanography? I.2 How Are Earth’s Oceans Unique? I.3 What Is Rational Use of Technology? Chapter 1 — Introduction to Planet "Earth" 1.1 How Many Oceans Exist On Earth? The Four Principal Oceans, Plus One The Seven Seas? Comparing the Oceans to the Continents 1.2 How Was Early Exploration of the Oceans Achieved? Early History The Middle Ages The Age of Discovery in Europe The Beginning of Voyaging for Science History of Oceanography…To Be Continued 1.3 What Is the Nature of Scientific Inquiry? Observations Hypothesis Testing Theory Theories and the Truth 1.4 How Were Earth and the Solar System Created? The Nebular Hypothesis Protoearth Density and Density Stratification Earth’s Internal Structure 1.5 How Were Earth’s Atmosphere and Oceans Created? Origin of Earth’s Atmosphere Origin of Earth’s Oceans 1.6 Did Life Begin in the Oceans? The Importance of Oxygen to Life Stanley Miller’s Experiment Evolution and Natural Selection Plants and Animals Evolve 1.7 How Old Is Earth? Radiometric Age Dating The Geologic Time Scale Chapter 2 — Plate Tectonics and the Ocean Floor 2.1 What Evidence Supports Continental Drift? Fit of the Continents Matching Sequences of Rocks and Mountain Chains Glacial Ages and Other Climate Evidence Distribution of Organisms Objections to the Continental Drift Model 2.2 What Evidence Supports Plate Tectonics? Earth’s Magnetic Field and Paleomagnetism Sea Floor Spreading and Features of the Ocean Basins Other Evidence from the Ocean Basins The Acceptance of a Theory 2.3 What Features Occur at Plate Boundaries? Divergent Boundary Features Convergent Boundary Features Transform Boundary Features 2.4 Testing the Model: What Are Some Applications of Plate Tectonics? Hotspots and Mantle Plumes Seamounts and Tablemounts Coral Reef Development Detecting Plate Motion with Satellites 2.5 How Has Earth Changed in the Past…And How Will it Look in the Future? The Past: Paleogeography The Future: Some Bold Predictions 2.6 Plate Tectonics…To Be Continued Chapter 3 — Marine Provinces 3.1 What Techniques Are Used to Determine Ocean Bathymetry? Soundings Echo Soundings Seismic Reflection Profiles 3.2 What Does Earth’s Hypsographic Curve Reveal? 3.3 What Features Exist on Continental Margins? Passive versus Active Continental Margins Continental Shelf Continental Slope Submarine Canyons and Turbidity Currents 3.4 What Features Exist in the Deep-Ocean Basins? Abyssal Plains Volcanic Peaks of the Abyssal Plains Ocean Trenches and Volcanic Arcs 3.5 What Features Exist along the Mid-Ocean Ridge? Volcanic Features Hydrothermal Vents Fracture Zones and Transform Faults Chapter 4 — Marine Sediments 4.1 What Is Lithogenous Sediment? Origin Composition Sediment Texture Distribution 4.2 What Is Biogenous Sediment? Origin Composition Distribution 4.3 What Is Hydrogenous Sediment? Origin Composition and Distribution 4.4 What Is Cosmogenous Sediment? Origin, Composition, and Distribution 4.5 What Mixtures of Sediment Exist? 4.6 A Summary: How Are Pelagic and Neritic Deposits Distributed? Neritic Deposits Pelagic Deposits How Sea Floor Sediments Represent Surface Conditions Worldwide Thickness of Marine Sediments 4.7 What Events Are Revealed by Sea Floor Sediments? 4.8 What Resources Do Ocean Sediments Provide? Energy Resources Other Resources Chapter 5 — Water and Seawater 5.1 Why Does Water Have Such Unusual Chemical Properties? Atomic Structure The Water Molecule 5.2 What Other Important Properties Does Water Possess? Water’s Thermal Properties Water Density 5.3 How Salty Is Seawater? Salinity Determining Salinity Comparing Pure Water and Seawater 5.4 Why Does Seawater Salinity Vary? Salinity Variations Processes Affecting Seawater Salinity Dissolved Components Added and Removed from Seawater 5.5 Is Seawater Acidic or Basic? The pH Scale The Carbonate Buffering System Recent Increase in Ocean Acidity 5.6 How Does Seawater Salinity Vary at the Surface and with Depth? Surface Salinity Variation Salinity Variation with Depth Halocline 5.7 How Does Seawater Density Vary with Depth? Factors Affecting Seawater Density Density Variation with Depth Pycnocline and Thermocline 5.8 What Methods Are Used to Desalinate Seawater? Distillation Membrane Processes Other Methods of Desalination Chapter 6 — Air-Sea Interaction 6.1 What Causes Earth’s Seasons? 6.2 How Does Uneven Solar Heating Affect Earth? Distribution of Solar Energy Oceanic Heat Flow 6.3 What Physical Properties Does the Atmosphere Possess? Composition Temperature Density Water Vapor Content Pressure Movement An Example: A Nonspinning Earth 6.4 How Does the Coriolis Effect Influence Moving Objects? Example 1: Perspectives and Frames of Reference on a Merry-Go-Round Example 2: A Tale of Two Missiles Changes in the Coriolis Effect with Latitude 6.5 What Global Atmospheric Circulation Patterns Exist? Circulation Cells Pressure Wind Belts Boundaries Circulation Cells: Idealized or Real? 6.6 What Weather and Climate Patterns Does the Ocean Exhibit? Weather versus Climate Winds Storms and Fronts Tropical Cyclones (Hurricanes) The Ocean’s Climate Patterns 6.7 How Do Sea Ice and Icebergs Form? Formation of Sea Ice Formation of Icebergs 6.8 What Causes the Atmosphere’s Greenhouse Effect? Earth’s Heat Budget and Changes in Wavelength Which Gases Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect? What Changes Will Occur as a Result of Increased Global Warming? What Should Be Done To Reduce Greenhouse Gases? 6.9 Can Power from Wind Be Harnessed as a Source of Energy? Chapter 7 — Ocean Circulation 7.1 How Are Ocean Currents Measured? Surface Current Measurement Deep Current Measurement 7.2 How Are Ocean Surface Currents Organized? Origin of Surface Currents Main Components of Ocean Surface Circulation Other Factors Affecting Ocean Surface Circulation Ocean Currents and Climate 7.3 What Causes Upwelling and Downwelling? Diverging Surface Water Converging Surface Water Coastal Upwelling and Downwelling Other Causes of Upwelling 7.4 What Are the Main Surface Circulation Patterns in Each Ocean? Antarctic Circulation Atlantic Ocean Circulation Indian Ocean Circulation Pacific Ocean Circulation 7.5 What Deep-Ocean Currents Exist? Origin of Thermohaline Circulation Sources of Deep Water Worldwide Deep-Water Circulation 7.6 Can Power from Currents Be Harnessed as a Source of Energy? Chapter 8 — Waves and Water Dynamics 8.1 What Causes Waves? 8.2 How Do Waves Move? 8.3 What Characteristics Do Waves Possess? Wave Terminology Circular Orbital Motion Deep-Water Waves Shallow-Water Waves Transitional Waves 8.4 How Do Wind-Generated Waves Develop? Wave Development Interference Patterns 8.5 How Do Waves Change in the Surf Zone? Physical Changes as Waves Approach Shore Breakers and Surfing Wave Refraction Wave Reflection 8.6 How Are Tsunami Created? Coastal Effects Some Examples of Historic and Recent Tsunami Tsunami Warning System 8.7 Can Power from Waves Be Harnessed as a Source of Energy? LIMPET 500: An Example of a Wave Power Plant Global Coastal Wave Energy Resources Chapter 9 — Tides 9.1 What Causes the Tides? Tide-Generating Forces Tidal Bulges: The Moon's Effect Tidal Bulges: The Sun's Effect Earth’s Rotation and the Tides 9.2 How Do Tides Vary During a Monthly Tidal Cycle? The Monthly Tidal Cycle Complicating Factors Idealized Tide Prediction 9.3 What Do Tides Really Look Like in the Ocean? Amphidromic Points and Cotidal Lines Effect of the Continents Other Considerations 9.4 What Types of Tidal Patterns Exist? Diurnal Tidal Pattern Semidiurnal Tidal Pattern Mixed Tidal Pattern 9.5 What Tidal Phenomena Occur in Coastal Regions? An Example of Tidal Extremes: The Bay of Fundy Coastal Tidal Currents Whirlpools: Fact or Fiction? 9.6 Can Tidal Power Be Harnessed as a Source of Energy? Tidal Power Plants Chapter 10 — The Coast: Beaches and Shoreline Processes 10.1 How Are Coastal Regions Defined? Beach Terminology Beach Composition 10.2 How Does Sand Move on the Beach? Movement Perpendicular to Shoreline Movement Parallel to Shoreline 10.3 What Features Exist along Erosional and Depositional Shores? Features of Erosional Shores Features of Depositional Shores 10.4 How Do Changes in Sea Level Produce Emerging and Submerging Shorelines? Features of Emerging Shorelines Features of Submerging Shorelines Changes in Sea Level 10.5 What Characteristics Do U.S. Coasts Exhibit? The Atlantic Coast The Gulf Coast The Pacific Coast 10.6 What Is Hard Stabilization? Groins and Groin Fields Jetties Breakwaters Seawalls 10.7 What Alternatives to Hard Stabilization Exist? Construction Restrictions Beach Replenishment Relocation Chapter 11 — The Coastal Ocean 11.1 What Laws Govern Ocean Ownership? Mare Liberum and the Territorial Sea Law of the Sea 11.2 What Characteristics Do Coastal Waters Exhibit? Salinity Temperature Coastal Geostrophic Currents 11.3 What Types of Coastal Waters Exist? Estuaries Coastal Wetlands Lagoons Marginal Seas 11.4 What Is Pollution? Marine Pollution: A Definition Standard Laboratory Bioassay The Issue of Waste Disposal in the Ocean 11.5 What Are the Main Types of Marine Pollution? Petroleum Sewage Sludge DDT and PCBs Mercury and Minamata Disease Non-Point-Source Pollution and Trash Chapter 12 —Marine Life and the Marine Environment 12.1 What Are Living Things and How Are They Classified? A Working Definition of Life The Three Domains of Life The Five Kingdoms of Organisms Taxonomic Classification 12.2 How Are Marine Organisms Classified? Plankton (Floaters) Nekton (Swimmers) Benthos (Bottom Dwellers) 12.3 How Many Marine Species Exist? Why Are There So Few Marine Species? Species in Pelagic and Benthic Environments 12.4 How Are Marine Organisms Adapted for the Physical Conditions of the Ocean? Need for Physical Support Water’s Viscosity Temperature Salinity Dissolved Gases Water’s High Transparency Pressure 12.5 What Are the Main Divisions of the Marine Environment? Pelagic (Open Sea) Environment Benthic (Sea Bottom) Environment Chapter 13 — Biological Productivity and Energy Transfer 13.1 What Is Primary Productivity? Measurement of Primary Productivity Factors Affecting Primary Productivity Light Transmission in Ocean Water Why Are the Margins of the Oceans So Rich in Life? 13.2 What Kinds of Photosynthetic Marine Organisms Exist? Seed-Bearing Plants (Anthophyta) Macroscopic (Large) Algae Microscopic (Small) Algae Photosynthetic Bacteria 13.3 How Does Regional Primary Productivity Vary? Productivity in Polar Oceans Productivity in Tropical Oceans Productivity in Temperate Oceans Comparing Regional Productivity 13.4 How Are Energy and Nutrients Passed Along in Marine Ecosystems? Flow of Energy in Marine Ecosystems Flow of Nutrients in Marine Ecosystems 13.5 What Oceanic Feeding Relationships Exist? Feeding Strategies Trophic Levels Transfer Efficiency Food Chains, Food Webs, and the Biomass Pyramid Symbiosis 13.6 What Issues Affect Marine Fisheries? Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries Overfishing Incidental Catch Fisheries Management Seafood Choices Chapter 14 — Animals of the Pelagic Environment 14.1 How Are Marine Organisms Able to Stay above the Ocean Floor? Use of Gas Containers Ability to Float Ability to Swim The Diversity of Planktonic Animals 14.2 What Adaptations Do Pelagic Organisms Possess for Seeking Prey? Mobility: Lungers versus Cruisers Swimming Speed Cold-Blooded versus Warm-Blooded Organisms Adaptations of Deep-Water Nekton 14.3 What Adaptations Do Pelagic Organisms Possess to Avoid Being Prey? Schooling Other Adaptations 14.4 What Characteristics Do Marine Mammals Possess? Mammalian Characteristics Order Carnivora Order Sirenia Order Cetacea 14.5 An Example of Migration: Why Do Gray Whales Migrate? Migration Route Reasons for Migration Timing of Migration Gray Whales as Endangered Species Chapter 15 — Animals of the Benthic Environment 15.1 How Are Benthic Organisms Distributed? 15.2 What Communities Exist along Rocky Shores? Intertidal Zonation The Spray (Supratidal) Zone: Organisms and Their Adaptations The High Tide Zone: Organisms and Their Adaptations The Middle Tide Zone: Organisms and Their Adaptations The Low Tide Zone: Organisms and Their Adaptations 15.3 What Communities Exist along Sediment-Covered Shores? Physical Environment of the Sediment Intertidal Zonation Sandy Beaches: Organisms and Their Adaptations Mud Flats: Organisms and Their Adaptations 15.4 What Communities Exist on the Shallow Offshore Ocean Floor? Rocky Bottoms (Subtidal): Organisms and Their Adaptations Coral Reefs: Organisms and Their Adaptations 15.5 What Communities Exist on the Deep-Ocean Floor? The Physical Environment Food Sources and Species Diversity Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Biocommunities: Organisms and Their Adaptations Low-Temperature Seep Biocommunities: Organisms and Their Adaptations The Deep Biosphere Afterword A.1 What Are Marine Protected Areas? A.2 What Can I Do? Appendixes I Metric and English Units Compared II Geographic Locations III Latitude and Longitude on Earth IV A Chemical Background: Why Water Has 2 H’s and 1 O V Careers in Oceanography Glossary Credits and Acknowledgements Index