Table of Contents 1 • INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Definition of Surveying 1 1.2 Geomatics 3 1.3 History of Surveying 4 1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys 9 1.5 Importance of Surveying 10 1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys 11 1.7 Surveying Safety 13 1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems 14 1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies 15 1.10 The Surveying Profession 16 1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations 17 1.12 Surveying on the Internet 18 1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying 19 Problems 20 Bibliography 21 2 • UNITS, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, AND FIELD NOTES 23 PART I UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Units of Measurement 23 2.3 International System of Units (SI) 25 2.4 Significant Figures 27 2.5 Rounding Off Numbers 29 PART II FIELD NOTES 30 2.6 Field Notes 30 2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes 31 2.8 Types of Field Books 32 2.9 Kinds of Notes 33 2.10 Arrangements of Notes 33 2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes 35 2.12 Introduction to Data Collectors 36 2.13 Transfer of Files from Data Collectors 39 2.14 Digital Data File Management 41 2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collectors 42 Problems 43 Bibliography 44 3 • THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations 45 3.3 Errors in Measurements 46 3.4 Mistakes 46 3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations 47 3.6 Types of Errors 47 3.7 Precision and Accuracy 48 3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors 49 3.9 Probability 49 3.10 Most Probable Value 50 3.11 Residuals 51 3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors 51 3.13 General Laws of Probability 55 3.14 Measures of Precision 55 3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation 58 3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors 58 3.17 Error Propagation 60 3.18 Applications 65 3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations 65 3.20 Weights of Observations 66 3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment 67 3.22 Using Software 68 Problems 69 Bibliography 71 4 • LEVELING–THEORY, METHODS, AND EQUIPMENT 73 PART I LEVELING–THEORY AND METHODS 73 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Definitions 73 4.3 North American Vertical Datum 75 4.4 Curvature and Refraction 76 4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation 78 PART II EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING 85 4.6 Categories of Levels 85 4.7 Telescopes 86 4.8 Level Vials 87 4.9 Tilting Levels 89 4.10 Automatic Levels 90 4.11 Digital Levels 91 4.12 Tripods 93 4.13 Hand Level 93 4.14 Level Rods 94 4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels 96 Problems 100 Bibliography 102 5 • LEVELING–FIELD PROCEDURES AND COMPUTATIONS 103 5.1 Introduction 103 5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level 103 5.3 Duties of a Rodperson 105 5.4 Differential Leveling 106 5.5 Precision 112 5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits 113 5.7 Reciprocal Leveling 114 5.8 Three-Wire Leveling 115 5.9 Profile Leveling 117 5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling 121 5.11 Use of the Hand Level 122 5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling 122 5.13 Mistakes 124 5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes 125 5.15 Using Software 125 Problems 127 Bibliography 129 6 • DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 131 PART I METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES 131 6.1 Introduction 131 6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements 131 6.3 Pacing 132 6.4 Odometer Readings 132 6.5 Optical Rangefinders 133 6.6 Tacheometry 133 6.7 Subtense Bar 133 PART II DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS BY TAPING 133 6.8 Introduction to Taping 133 6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories 134 6.10 Care of Taping Equipment 135 6.11 Taping on Level Ground 136 6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground 138 6.13 Slope Measurements 140 6.14 Sources of Error in Taping 141 6.15 Tape Problems 145 6.16 Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem 147 PART III ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 148 6.17 Introduction 148 6.18 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy 149 6.19 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement 152 6.20 Electro-Optical Instruments 153 6.21 Total Station Instruments 156 6.22 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors 157 6.23 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances 158 6.24 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement 160 6.25 Using Software 165 Problems 165 Bibliography 168 7 • ANGLES, AZIMUTHS, AND BEARINGS 169 7.1 Introduction 169 7.2 Units of Angle Measurement 169 7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles 170 7.4 Direction of a Line 171 7.5 Azimuths 172 7.6 Bearings 173 7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings 174 7.8 Computing Azimuths 175 7.9 Computing Bearings 177 7.10 The Compass and the Earth’s Magnetic Field 179 7.11 Magnetic Declination 180 7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination 181 7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination 183 7.14 Local Attraction 184 7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems 185 7.16 Mistakes 187 Problems 187 Bibliography 189 8 • TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS; ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 191 PART I TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS 191 8.1 Introduction 191 8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments 191 8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments 194 8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument 195 8.5 Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument 199 8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments 201 PART II ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 203 8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances 203 8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments 204 8.9 Observing Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method 206 8.10 Closing the Horizon 207 8.11 Observing Deflection Angles 209 8.12 Observing Azimuths 211 8.13 Observing Vertical Angles 211 8.14 Sights and Marks 213 8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line 214 8.16 Balancing-In 216 8.17 Random Traverse 217 8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences 218 8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories 219 8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work 222 8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations 228 8.22 Mistakes 228 Problems 229 Bibliography 230 9 • TRAVERSING 231 9.1 Introduction 231 9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions 233 9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths 234 9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations 235 9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations 235 9.6 Traverse Field Notes 237 9.7 Angle Misclosure 238 9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments 239 9.9 Radial Traversing 240 9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing 241 9.11 Mistakes in Traversing 242 Problems 242 10 • TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS 245 10.1 Introduction 245 10.2 Balancing Angles 246 10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings 248 10.4 Departures and Latitudes 249 10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions 251 10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision 251 10.7 Traverse Adjustment 252 10.8 Rectangular Coordinates 255 10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations 256 10.10 Inversing 260 10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions 261 10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys 263 10.13 Use of Open Traverses 265 10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems 268 10.15 Traverse Computations Using Computers 269 10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations 269 10.17 Mistakes in Traverse Computations 272 Problems 272 Bibliography 275 11 • COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN SURVEYING CALCULATIONS 277 11.1 Introduction 277 11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles 278 11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line 280 11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions 282 11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle 284 11.6 Intersection of Two Circles 287 11.7 Three-Point Resection 289 11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 292 11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem 297 11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection 299 11.11 Software 302 Problems 303 Bibliography 307 12 • AREA 309 12.1 Introduction 309 12.2 Methods of Measuring Area 309 12.3 Area by Division Into Simple Figures 310 12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines 311 12.5 Area by Coordinates 313 12.6 Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method 317 12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries 320 12.8 Partitioning of Lands 321 12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps 325 12.10 Software 327 12.11 Sources of Error in Determining Areas 328 12.12 Mistakes in Determining Areas 328 Problems 328 Bibliography 330 13 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION 331 13.1 Introduction 331 13.2 Overview of GPS 332 13.3 The GPS Signal 335 13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems 337 13.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning 345 13.6 Errors in Observations 348 13.7 Differential Positioning 356 13.8 Kinematic Methods 358 13.9 Relative Positioning 359 13.10 Other Satellite Navigation Systems 362 13.11 The Future 364 Problems 365 Bibliography 366 14 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—STATIC SURVEYS 367 14.1 Introduction 367 14.2 Field Procedures in Satellite Surveys 369 14.3 Planning Satellite Surveys 372 14.4 Performing Static Surveys 384 14.5 Data Processing and Analysis 386 14.6 Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys 393 14.7 Mistakes in Satellite Surveys 395 Problems 395 Bibliography 397 15 • GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—KINEMATIC SURVEYS 399 15.1 Introduction 399 15.2 Planning of Kinematic Surveys 400 15.3 Initialization 402 15.4 Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys 403 15.5 Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys 405 15.6 Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys 408 15.7 Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys 411 15.8 Real-Time Networks 412 15.9 Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys 413 15.10 Machine Control 414 15.11 Errors in Kinematic Surveys 418 15.12 Mistakes in Kinematic Surveys 418 Problems 418 Bibliography 419 16 • ADJUSTMENTS BY LEAST SQUARES 421 16.1 Introduction 421 16.2 Fundamental Condition of Least Squares 423 16.3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method 424 16.4 Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment 428 16.5 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities 430 16.6 Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits 432 16.7 Propagation of Errors 436 16.8 Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors 437 16.9 Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys 443 16.10 The Error Ellipse 452 16.11 Adjustment Procedures 457 16.12 Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations 458 16.13 Software 460 16.14 Conclusions 460 Problems 461 Bibliography 466 17 • MAPPING SURVEYS 467 17.1 Introduction 467 17.2 Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys 468 17.3 Map Scale 468 17.4 Control for Mapping Surveys 470 17.5 Contours 471 17.6 Characteristics of Contours 474 17.7 Direct and Indirect Methods of Locating Contours 474 17.8 Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems 477 17.9 Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details 479 17.10 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 488 17.11 Selection of Field Method 489 17.12 Working with Data Collectors and Field-to-Finish Software 490 17.13 Hydrographic Surveys 493 17.14 Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys 497 17.15 Mistakes in Mapping Surveys 498 Problems 498 Bibliography 500 18 • MAPPING 503 18.1 Introduction 503 18.2 Availability of Maps and Related Information 504 18.3 National Mapping Program 505 18.4 Accuracy Standards for Mapping 505 18.5 Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures 507 18.6 Map Design 508 18.7 Map Layout 510 18.8 Basic Map Plotting Procedures 512 18.9 Contour Interval 514 18.10 Plotting Contours 514 18.11 Lettering 515 18.12 Cartographic Map Elements 516 18.13 Drafting Materials 519 18.14 Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems 519 18.15 Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping 525 18.16 Sources of Error in Mapping 526 18.17 Mistakes in Mapping 526 Problems 526 Bibliography 528 19 • CONTROL SURVEYS AND GEODETIC REDUCTIONS 529 19.1 Introduction 529 19.2 The Ellipsoid and Geoid 530 19.3 The Conventional Terrestrial Pole 532 19.4 Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature 534 19.5 Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical 536 19.6 U.S. Reference Frames 538 19.7 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys 547 19.8 The National Spatial Reference System 550 19.9 Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network 550 19.10 Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network 551 19.11 Control Point Descriptions 551 19.12 Field Procedures for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys 554 19.13 Field Procedures for Vertical Control Surveys 559 19.14 Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values 564 19.15 Geodetic Position Computations 577 19.16 The Local Geodetic Coordinate System 580 19.17 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations 581 19.18 Software 584 Problems 584 Bibliography 587 20 • STATE PLANE COORDINATES AND OTHER MAP PROJECTIONS 589 20.1 Introduction 589 20.2 Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems 590 20.3 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection 593 20.4 Transverse Mercator Projection 594 20.5 State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83 595 20.6 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System 596 20.7 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System 601 20.8 Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids 608 20.9 Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations 617 20.10 Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another 620 20.11 Conversions Between SPCS27 and SPCS83 621 20.12 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection 622 20.13 Other Map Projections 623 20.14 Map Projection Software 627 Problems 628 Bibliography 631 21 • BOUNDARY SURVEYS 633 21.1 Introduction 633 21.2 Categories of Land Surveys 634 21.3 Historical Perspectives 635 21.4 Property Description by Metes and Bounds 636 21.5 Property Description by Block-and-Lot System 639 21.6 Property Description by Coordinates 641 21.7 Retracement Surveys 641 21.8 Subdivision Surveys 644 21.9 Partitioning Land 646 21.10 Registration of Title 647 21.11 Adverse Possession and Easements 648 21.12 Condominium Surveys 648 21.13 Geographic and Land Information Systems 655 21.14 Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys 655 21.15 Mistakes 655 Problems 656 Bibliography 658 22 • SURVEYS OF THE PUBLIC LANDS 659 22.1 Introduction 659 22.2 Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands 660 22.3 Initial Point 663 22.4 Principal Meridian 664 22.5 Baseline 665 22.6 Standard Parallels (Correction Lines) 666 22.7 Guide Meridians 666 22.8 Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines 667 22.9 Designation of Townships 668 22.10 Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships 668 22.11 Subdivision of a Township into Sections 670 22.12 Subdivision of Sections 671 22.13 Fractional Sections 672 22.14 Notes 672 22.15 Outline of Subdivision Steps 672 22.16 Marking Corners 674 22.17 Witness Corners 674 22.18 Meander Corners 675 22.19 Lost and Obliterated Corners 675 22.20 Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys 678 22.21 Descriptions by Township Section and Smaller Subdivision 678 22.22 BLM Land Information System 679 22.23 Sources of Error 680 22.24 Mistakes 680 Problems 681 Bibliography 683 23 • CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS 685 23.1 Introduction 685 23.2 Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys 686 23.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control 689 23.4 Staking Out a Pipeline 691 23.5 Staking Pipeline Grades 692 23.6 Staking Out a Building 694 23.7 Staking Out Highways 698 23.8 Other Construction Surveys 703 23.9 Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments 704 23.10 Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment 706 23.11 Machine Guidance and Control 709 23.12 As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning 710 23.13 Sources of Error in Construction Surveys 711 23.14 Mistakes 712 Problems 712 Bibliography 714 24 • HORIZONTAL CURVES 715 24.1 Introduction 715 24.2 Degree of Circular Curve 716 24.3 Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas 718 24.4 Circular Curve Stationing 720 24.5 General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles 721 24.6 Computing Deflection Angles and Chords 723 24.7 Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 725 24.8 Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 726 24.9 Setups on Curve 727 24.10 Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords 728 24.11 Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords 730 24.12 Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve 731 24.13 Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates 733 24.14 Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations 738 24.15 Circular Curve Layout by Offsets 739 24.16 Special Circular Curve Problems 742 24.17 Compound and Reverse Curves 743 24.18 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 743 24.19 Spirals 744 24.20 Computation of “As-Built” Circular Alignments 749 24.21 Sources of Error in Laying Out Circular Curves 752 24.22 Mistakes 752 Problems 753 Bibliography 755 25 • VERTICAL CURVES 757 25.1 Introduction 757 25.2 General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve 758 25.3 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve 759 25.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve 761 25.5 Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation 761 25.6 Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola 765 25.7 Curve Computations by Proportion 766 25.8 Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve 766 25.9 Machine Control in Grading Operations 767 25.10 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve 767 25.11 Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point 770 25.12 Sight Distance 771 25.13 Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves 773 25.14 Mistakes 774 Problems 774 Bibliography 776 26 • VOLUMES 777 26.1 Introduction 777 26.2 Methods of Volume Measurement 777 26.3 The Cross-Section Method 778 26.4 Types of Cross Sections 779 26.5 Average-End-Area Formula 780 26.6 Determining End Areas 781 26.7 Computing Slope Intercepts 784 26.8 Prismoidal Formula 786 26.9 Volume Computations 788 26.10 Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method 790 26.11 Contour-Area Method 791 26.12 Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge 793 26.13 Software 794 26.14 Sources of Error in Determining Volumes 795 26.15 Mistakes 795 Problems 795 Bibliography 798 27 • PHOTOGRAMMETRY 799 27.1 Introduction 799 27.2 Uses of Photogrammetry 800 27.3 Aerial Cameras 801 27.4 Types of Aerial Photographs 803 27.5 Vertical Aerial Photographs 804 27.6 Scale of a Vertical Photograph 806 27.7 Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph 810 27.8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph 811 27.9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph 813 27.10 Stereoscopic Parallax 814 27.11 Stereoscopic Viewing 817 27.12 Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax 819 27.13 Analytical Photogrammetry 820 27.14 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments 821 27.15 Orthophotos 826 27.16 Ground Control for Photogrammetry 827 27.17 Flight Planning 828 27.18 Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems 830 27.19 Remote Sensing 831 27.20 Software 837 27.21 Sources of Error in Photogrammetry 838 27.22 Mistakes 838 Problems 839 Bibliography 842 28 • INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS 843 28.1 Introduction 843 28.2 Land Information Systems 846 28.3 GIS Data Sources and Classifications 846 28.4 Spatial Data 846 28.5 Nonspatial Data 852 28.6 Data Format Conversions 853 28.7 Creating GIS Databases 856 28.8 Metadata 862 28.9 GIS Analytical Functions 862 28.10 GIS Applications 867 28.11 Data Sources 867 Problems 869 Bibliography 871 APPENDIX A • DUMPY LEVELS, TRANSITS, AND THEODOLITES 873 APPENDIX B • EXAMPLE NOTEFORMS 888 APPENDIX C • ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS 895 APPENDIX D • USING THE WORKSHEETS FROM THE COMPANION WEBSITE 911 APPENDIX E • INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES 917 APPENDIX F • U.S. STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM DEFINING PARAMETERS 923 APPENDIX G • ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 927 INDEX 933