Formal Charges
Formal charges have an important role in organic chemistry since this concept helps us to know whether an atom in a molecule is neutral/bears a positive or negative charge. Even if some molecules are neutral, the atoms within that molecule need not be neutral atoms.
Polarity Of Water
In simple chemical terms, polarity refers to the separation of charges in a chemical species leading into formation of two polar ends which are positively charged end and negatively charged end. Polarity in any molecule occurs due to the differences in the electronegativities of the bonded atoms. Water, as we all know has two hydrogen atoms bonded to an oxygen atom. As oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen thus, there exists polarity in the bonds which is why water is known as a polar solvent.
Valence Bond Theory Vbt
Valence bond theory (VBT) in simple terms explains how individual atomic orbitals with an unpaired electron each, come close to each other and overlap to form a molecular orbital giving a covalent bond. It gives a quantum mechanical approach to the formation of covalent bonds with the help of wavefunctions using attractive and repulsive energies when two atoms are brought from infinity to their internuclear distance.
What is the 'electron group geometry' for the carbon in phosgene (Cl2C=O)?
linear
octahedral
trigonal planar
trigonal bipyramidal
tetrahedral
![hydrogen
helum
H
Не
1.0079
Ithium
4.0026
berylium
boron
carbon
nitrogen
oxygen
fluorine
neon
5
10
Li Be
6.941
10811
aluminium
12011
slicon
90122
14.007
phosphorus
15
15.999
18.998
20.180
sodium
sutur
chlorine
argon
11
12
13
14
18
Na Mg
AI Si
22.990
potassium
19
30.974
arsenie
24 305
26.982
gallum
31
28.006
germanium
32
32.065
selenium
35453
tromine
35
39.948
krypon
scandium
titanium
vanadium
chromium
manganese
25
iron
cobalt
nickel
copper
zinc
20
21
22
23
24
26
27
29
30
33
34
36
K Ca
Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu
Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.098
rutidium
40.078
strontium
51.996
molybdenum technetium
42
58.693
palladium
44.966
47.867
zirconium
50.942
nioblum
54.938
55.845
ruthenium
58.933
hodium
63.516
silver
65.39
cadmium
69.723
Indium
72.61
tin
74.922
antimony
78.96
tellurum
79.904
83.80
yttrium
iodine
37
38
39
45
54
Rb Sr
Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag
Cd In Sn Sb Te
Хе
85.468
91.224
hafnium
72
87.62
88.906
lutetum
92.906
tantalum
95.94
tungsten
74
101.07
osmkum
102.91
106.42
107.87
ridium
platinum
112.41
mercury
114.82
thallium
118.71
lead
121.76
bismuth
127.60
polonium
126.90
astatine
131.29
radon
caesium
rhenium
gold
55
57-70
73
75
81
82
86
Hg TI
Rn
132.91
francum
186 21
bohrium
137.33
178.49
lawrendum rutherfordum
103
174.97
180.95
dubnium
183.84
seaborgium
190.23
hassium
192.22
195.08
ununnillum unununium
110
196.97
200.59
ununbium
204.38
207.2
ununquadum
114
208.98
[209
[210
2221
radium
meitnerium
87
88
89-102
104
105
107
108
109
111
112
Fr Ra * * Lr Rf
Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub
Uuq
22
22
2621
261
262|
269
268
271
221
277
289
回 A
lanthanum
57
praseodymium neodymium| promethium
60
cerium
samarium
europlum
63
gadolnium
64
terbum
dysprosium
66
holmum
ertium
thulium
69
ytterblum
70
58
59
61
62
65
67
68
*Lanthanide series
Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb
Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
138.91
actinium
140.12
thorium
140.91
protactinium
91
144.24
uranium
149
neptunium
93
150.36
plutonium
151.96
americium
162 50
caltomium
98
164.93
einsteinium
157.25
158.93
berkelium
167.26
fermum
168.93
mendelevium nobelium
101
173.04
curium
** Actinide series
89
90
94
95
96
97
99
100
102
Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
227)
232.04
231.04
238.03
[237]
1244]
2431
247]
247]
251]
2521
257
258]
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