There cannot be any NULL bytes in the address if it is in the format string (except as the terminating byte) since the string is a NULL-terminated array just like any other in C. This does not mean that addresses containing NULL bytes can never be used—addresses can often be placed in the stack in places other than the format string itself. In these cases, it may be possible for attackers to write to addresses containing NULL bytes. It is also possible to do a two-stage memory read or write—first construct an address with NULL bytes in it on the stack (see the following section “Writing to Memory”) and then use it as a pointer for %s for reading

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Hash Table

A hash table also called a hash map, is a data structure that maps key-value pairs. The hash table can be used in complex systems to provide fast access and compact storage. A hash table is a structure that stores data in an abstract data type kind of associative array. It keeps data in an array format, with a distinct index value for every data value. If the index of the required data is known, then the data can be accessed very easily.