study four early computer systems in terms of architectural and organizational perspectives, submit their pictures (with complete reference info), compare with a particular current computer system, and discuss potential anticipated computer systems in the year-2032.

Computer Architecture:- In computer engineering, Computer Architecture is a set of rules and procedures that define the operation, programming, and implementation of computer programs. The structure of a program refers to its structure in terms of the distinct parts of the system and their interactions.

Some definitions of architecture define it as a defining skill and a computer programming model but not a specific implementation. In some definitions computer design involves the creation of a set of instructions, the formation of microarchitecture, the rational design, and the application.

SubCategories below:- Computer-aided design has three main subcategories:-

Instruction set Architecture (ISA): defines machine code readable and works with word size, memory address methods, processing registers, and data type.

Microarchitecture: also known as "computer organization", this describes how a particular processor will use the ISA. CPU cache size for example, is a problem that usually has nothing to do with ISA.

System design: includes all other hardware components within a computer system, such as data processing without a CPU (e.g., direct memory access), visual processing, and multiple processing.

There are other technologies in computer design. The following technologies are used in large companies such as Intel, and it was estimated in 2002 to account for 1% of all computer designs:

Macroarchitecture:- Architecture layers of structures that are less visible than microarchitecture.

Assembly instruction  set Architecture:- A smart compiler can convert a complex compound language common to a machine group into a slightly different machine language for different uses.

Programmer-visible macroarchitecture:- Advanced language tools such as facilitators can define consistent interaction or contract for the programmers they use, eliminating differences between ISA, UISA, and smaller infrastructure. For example, C, C ++, or Java standards define different macroarchitectures for a visual system.

Microcode:- A microcode software that translates instructions to work on a chip. It works as a lock around the hardware, introducing the preferred version of the interface of the hardware command set. This instructional translation center provides chip designers with flexible options: Eg. 1. The newly upgraded version of the chip can use the microcode to launch the same instructions as the older chip version, so that all software that directs that set of commands will work on the new chip without the need for changes. Eg. 2. Microcode can deliver a variety of instructions for the same basic chip, allowing it to use a variety of software.

UISA:- User Instruction Set Architecture, refers to one of three sub-sets of RISC CPU commands provided by PowerPC RISC Processors. The sub-set of UISA, are those RISC guidelines that are of interest to application developers. The other two subsets are VEA (Virtual Environment Architecture) instructions used by visual system developers, and OEA (Operating Environment Architecture) used by Operation System developers.

Pin Architecture:- Hardware functions to be assigned to a microprocessor on a hardware platform, eg, p86 x206 A20M, FERR / IGNNE or FLUSH. Also, messages that you have to process must be deleted so that the external repository is invalid (empty). Pin Architecture functions are more flexible than ISA tasks because external computers can adapt to new code, or change from PIN to message. The term "properties" is synonymous, because functions must be provided on compatible systems, even if the detailed method changes.

Computer organization:- Computer programming helps to develop performance-based products. For example, application engineers need to know the processing power of processors. They may need to upgrade the software to get more performance at a lower cost. This may require a detailed analysis of the computer organization. For example, on an SD card, designers may need to edit the card so that more data is processed more quickly.

The computer organization also helps organize the processor selection for a particular project. Multimedia projects may require faster data access, while virtual machines may require faster disruption. Sometimes certain tasks require additional components. For example, a computer capable of using a virtual machine requires hardware components of the virtual memory so that the memory of different virtual computers can be kept separate. Computer layout and features also affect power consumption and processor costs.

Implementation:- Once a set of instructions and micro-architecture has been created, the working machine should be upgraded. This design process is called implementation. Implementation is generally not considered a structural design, but rather a hardware design engineering. Implementation can also be broken down into a few steps:

Logic Implementation:- Logic Implementation is designs the required circuits at the logic gate level.

Circuit Implementation:- Circuit implementation enables low-level transistor designs of objects (eg, gates, recurring crowds, latches) and other larger blocks (ALUs, archives, etc.) that can be used at the logic-gate level, or even at a visual level. if the design requires that.

Physical Implementation:- Physical Implementation attracts portable circuits. Different circuit components are attached to the chip floorplan or board and connecting cables are created.

Design validation:- Design validation checks the whole computer to see if it works in all cases and at all times. Once the design validation process begins, the design at a reasonable level is evaluated using sensible emulators. However, this is often too slow to do a real test. Therefore, after making adjustments based on initial testing, prototypes were developed using Field-Programmable Gate-Arrays (FPGAs). Many hobby projects are based on this category. The final step is to evaluate the combined prototype circuits, which may require several modifications.

For CPUs, the entire implementation process is organized differently and is often referred to as CPU design.

Design Goals:- The exact form of a computer system depends on the goals and objectives. Computer properties typically trade in values, power versus performance, cost, memory capacity, delay (delay in the amount of time it takes to get information from one place to a source) and output. Sometimes other considerations, such as characteristics, size, weight, reliability, and flexibility are also factors.

The most common scheme is to perform in-depth power analysis and find a way to keep energy consumption low while maintaining sufficient efficiency.

Performance:- The performance of a modern computer is often defined in the instructions for each cycle (IPC), which measures the efficiency of structures at any frequency of the clock; a faster IPC rating means a faster computer. Older computers had lower IPC values ​​of up to 0.1 while modern processors easily reached close to 1. Superscalar processors can reach the IPC three to five times by performing a few directions per cycle.

Calculating machine language instructions can be misleading because they can do different job values ​​in different ISAs. The "command" in standard measurements is not the calculation of ISA machine language instructions, but the unit of measurement, usually based on the VAX computer speed.

Other factors influence speed, such as a combination of operating units, bus speed, available memory, and the type and order of commands in systems.

There are two main types of speed: latency and throughput. The delay is between the start of the process and its completion. Work performed is the amount of work performed during a unit. Delay to interrupt the system's maximum guaranteed response time to an electronic event (such as when a disk drive finishes moving certain data).

Performance is affected by a very wide range of design options - for example, plumbing the processor often makes the delay worse, but makes the output better. Computer-controlled computers often require low interruption interruptions. These computers operate in a real-time environment and fail if the task is not completed by a certain amount of time. For example, computer-controlled anti-lock brakes should start braking within a predictable and limited time after the sound of the brake pedal is heard or else there will be a brake failure.

Measurement scales take into account all of these factors by measuring the time a computer takes to run a series of test programs. Although scaling shows power, it should not be the way you choose a computer. Measured machines are usually classified into different sizes. For example, one system may handle science applications faster, while another may offer video games more smoothly. In addition, designers may direct and add special features to their products, using computer hardware or software, which allow a particular benchmark to work faster but does not provide the same benefits to normal operations.

Power efficiency:-Energy efficiency is another important factor in today's computers. High power efficiency is often sold at low speeds or at high cost. The standard measure for power consumption in computer construction is MIPS / W (millions of commands per second per hour).

Modern circuits have the minimum power required for each transistor as the number of transistors chip increases. This is because each transistor inserted into a new chip requires a power supply and requires new construction methods to be enabled. However the number of transistors per chip starts to increase at a lower rate. Therefore, power efficiency is beginning to be very important, if not more important than installing multiple transistors in a single chip. Recent process designs have shown this emphasis as they focus more on energy efficiency than congesting as many transistors in a single chip as possible. In the world of embedded computers, power efficiency has long been an important factor in terms of throughput and latency.

Shift in market demand:- The rise in clock size has grown very slowly over the past few years, compared to the development of energy reduction. This is driven by the end of Moore’s Law and the need for longer battery life and a reduction in the size of mobile technology. This change in its focus from higher clock levels to energy consumption and slower performance can be attributed to a significant decrease in energy consumption, 50%, reported by Intel in their release of Haswell microarchitecture; when they reduce their power consumption from 30 to 40 watts to 10-20 watts. Comparing this with the processing speed of 3 GHz to 4 GHz (2002 to 2006), it can be seen that the focus on research and development shifts from clock frequency to low energy consumption and takes up less space.