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Human Anatomy & Physiology (11th Edition)
Human Anatomy & Physiology (11th Edition)
11th Edition
ISBN:9780134580999
Author:Elaine N. Marieb, Katja N. Hoehn
Publisher:Elaine N. Marieb, Katja N. Hoehn
Chapter1: The Human Body: An Orientation
Section: Chapter Questions
Problem 1RQ: The correct sequence of levels forming the structural hierarchy is A. (a) organ, organ system,...
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11:52 p. m. Mar 28 mar. 196 PART TWO Radiographic Positioning and Related Anatomy 7' 2 1 347 8 5 2 2 2 11 web.whatsapp.com 10 B FIGURE 18-12 Visceral projections on the left (A) and right (B) canine abdominal walls. 1, Diaphragm; 2, liver; 3, stomach; 4, spleen; 5 and 5', left and right kidneys, respectively; 6, descending colon; 7, small intestine; 7', descending duodenum; 8, pancreas; 9, rectum; 10, female urogenital tract; 11, bladder. position of adjacent organs. The liver normally lies beneath the ribs, but the position is affected by the stage of breathing and the type of animal. The caudal margin of the liver is generally enclosed either within the rib cage or quite close to its caudal portion. The margins of the liver are best evaluated on a lateral radiograph. The cranial margin of the liver almost parallels the contours of the dome-shaped diaphragm and is easily visualized, but the caudal margin may be difficult to see on the VD view. The liver in both the dog and the cat has four lobes (left, right, caudate, and quadrate). The left and right lobes are further divided into the medial and lateral sublobes. There is superimposition between the lobes of the liver, between the liver and the diaphragm, and sometimes between the liver and the stomach; thus these areas are not always identifiable. Gallbladder In the dog and cat, the gallbladder is associated with the right liver lobes. Because of the overlapping, this organ which has the opacity of soft tissue, is not normally visible. Spleen6,⁹ The normal spleen has no blunting or rounding of the edges. The head of the spleen (the proximal portion) is attached to 6 9 A 10 R B 8 R 12 11 11 13 8' 3 13 3 FIGURE 18-13 A, Transverse section of the canine abdomen at the level of the first lumbar vertebra. B, Corresponding computerized tomog raphy (CT) scan slightly more caudal than the section shown in A; the cat was lying on its back during the CT procedure. 1, First lumbar ver- tebra; 2, last rib; 3, descending colon; 4, transverse colon; 5, lymph nodes and blood vessels in mesentery, with the jejunum ventral to them; 6, caudal vena cava; 7, aorta, between crura of diaphragm; 8, right kidney; 8', cranial pole of left kidney; 9, descending duodenum and pancreas; 10, greater omentum; 11, linea alba; 12, liver; 13, spleen. the body and fundus of the stomach by the gastrosplenic ligament. The proximal extremity appears as a flattened tri- angular structure in the craniodorsal abdomen, is dorsal and caudal to the stomach, and is infrequently seen on a lateral radiograph. On a ventrodorsal radiograph the spleen is gen- erally seen lateral to the fundic portion of the stomach, medial to the body wall, and craniolateral to the left kidney. The body and distal portion are mobile and can be found anywhere in the abdomen, depending on the size of the spleen in the ventral abdomen to either left or right of midline. In cats the spleen is relatively consistent in size with only the proximal extremity seen on the ventrodorsal views. Visu- alization of its distal extremity in the ventral abdomen of a @46 %
Transcribed Image Text:11:52 p. m. Mar 28 mar. 196 PART TWO Radiographic Positioning and Related Anatomy 7' 2 1 347 8 5 2 2 2 11 web.whatsapp.com 10 B FIGURE 18-12 Visceral projections on the left (A) and right (B) canine abdominal walls. 1, Diaphragm; 2, liver; 3, stomach; 4, spleen; 5 and 5', left and right kidneys, respectively; 6, descending colon; 7, small intestine; 7', descending duodenum; 8, pancreas; 9, rectum; 10, female urogenital tract; 11, bladder. position of adjacent organs. The liver normally lies beneath the ribs, but the position is affected by the stage of breathing and the type of animal. The caudal margin of the liver is generally enclosed either within the rib cage or quite close to its caudal portion. The margins of the liver are best evaluated on a lateral radiograph. The cranial margin of the liver almost parallels the contours of the dome-shaped diaphragm and is easily visualized, but the caudal margin may be difficult to see on the VD view. The liver in both the dog and the cat has four lobes (left, right, caudate, and quadrate). The left and right lobes are further divided into the medial and lateral sublobes. There is superimposition between the lobes of the liver, between the liver and the diaphragm, and sometimes between the liver and the stomach; thus these areas are not always identifiable. Gallbladder In the dog and cat, the gallbladder is associated with the right liver lobes. Because of the overlapping, this organ which has the opacity of soft tissue, is not normally visible. Spleen6,⁹ The normal spleen has no blunting or rounding of the edges. The head of the spleen (the proximal portion) is attached to 6 9 A 10 R B 8 R 12 11 11 13 8' 3 13 3 FIGURE 18-13 A, Transverse section of the canine abdomen at the level of the first lumbar vertebra. B, Corresponding computerized tomog raphy (CT) scan slightly more caudal than the section shown in A; the cat was lying on its back during the CT procedure. 1, First lumbar ver- tebra; 2, last rib; 3, descending colon; 4, transverse colon; 5, lymph nodes and blood vessels in mesentery, with the jejunum ventral to them; 6, caudal vena cava; 7, aorta, between crura of diaphragm; 8, right kidney; 8', cranial pole of left kidney; 9, descending duodenum and pancreas; 10, greater omentum; 11, linea alba; 12, liver; 13, spleen. the body and fundus of the stomach by the gastrosplenic ligament. The proximal extremity appears as a flattened tri- angular structure in the craniodorsal abdomen, is dorsal and caudal to the stomach, and is infrequently seen on a lateral radiograph. On a ventrodorsal radiograph the spleen is gen- erally seen lateral to the fundic portion of the stomach, medial to the body wall, and craniolateral to the left kidney. The body and distal portion are mobile and can be found anywhere in the abdomen, depending on the size of the spleen in the ventral abdomen to either left or right of midline. In cats the spleen is relatively consistent in size with only the proximal extremity seen on the ventrodorsal views. Visu- alization of its distal extremity in the ventral abdomen of a @46 %
11:52 p. m. Mar 28 mar. web.whatsapp.com cat in a lateral radiograph, usually indicates splenomegaly. In dogs there is more variation in the size of the spleen due to many factors, such as age and breed, as well as sedatives (e.g., barbiturates, phenothiazines) and other drugs that cause splenomegaly. Esophagus The esophagus is usually not visible on neck and thoracic radiographs. However, it is sometimes seen on the lateral view of the thorax, either dorsal to the trachea when a small amount of air is present in its lumen, or between the aortal and the caudal vena cava when the esophagus is fluid filled'. Pharynx The pharynx is an air-filled cavity at the conjunction of the respiratory system and the alimentary tract. The soft palate is visible as a band of soft tissue between the nasopharynx dorsally and the oropharynx ventrally. The laryngeal carti- lages are seen ventral and caudal to the pharynx. Often the pharyngeal side of the upper esophageal sphincter is also visible. The pharynx is best seen on a lateral view. Stomach 6,8 The stomach lies just caudal to the liver and cranial to the transverse colon. It is normally found within the rib cage, especially between meals, when the gastric contents are nor- mally air and a small amount of fluid. Thus it is important to include part of the rib cage when taking radiographs of the abdomen. Food is seen in the stomach as a granular material of mixed (air, soft tissue, and mineral) opacity. The radiographic aspect the stomach depends on the gastric content and the patient position. The stomach size and opacity vary according to the gastric contents, but generally, the size on a lateral view should not be more than two inter- costal spaces. This organ is located at the level of about the 10th to 12th intercostal spaces. If it is radiographed after a meal, the stomach can be two to three times larger. In cats the cardia/body portions of an empty stomach look like circular soft tissue opacity 2 to 3 cm in diameter, located to the left of the midline and caudal to the liver. The wall of the stomach with its rugal folds (gastric rugae) may be seen if the stomach is distended with gas or if it is emp The rugal folds are most evident in the cardia and pyloric regions. However, the wall, as seen radiographi- cally, may appear thicker than it really is, because of addi- tional soft tissue opacities (gastric content). It is, therefore, difficult to assess the gastric (and intestinal) wall on survey radiographs. The stomach can be divided into different portions-the cardia, fundus, body, pyloric canal, and pyloric antrum. The cardia lies just caudal to the diaphragm in the region of the esophageal hiatus. The fundus has a dome appearance at the left dorsal aspect of the stomach. The central located body is the largest portion of the stomach, lying between the fundus and pyloric portion. The pyloric portion is the distal third of the stomach that can be divided into the thin walled pyloric antrum (proximal two-thirds) and the CHAPTER 18 Small Animal Abdomen muscular pyloric canal (distal third) which contains a double sphincter. In the right lateral position, the pylorus may appear as a soft-tissue opacity that can be misdiagnosed as a mass or foreign body. If there is any doubt, a left lateral. view should be completed. The long axis of the stomach (a line drawn connecting the fundus and the pylorus) varies depending on the stage of respiration, size of the liver, and degree of gastric filling. In the lateral view, the long axis of the stomach should lie approximately parallel to the caudal ribs, perpendicular to the vertebral column, or somewhere between, in a dog or cat. For the VD view of the dog, the cardia, fundus and body of the stomach, are situated to the left of midline while the pyloric portions are to the right of midline. The pylorus in the cat is closer to the midline and the stomach is more acutely angled. In the lateral view, the axis appears almost vertical on the radiograph, whereas in the VD view the stomach has a horizontal appearance (Figure 18-14). The gas or fluid pattern within the stomach is influenced by the volume and ratio of fluid to gas and the position of the patient. If one compares the stomach with a J shaped balloon in a transverse plane that is filled with water and air, FRED 197 с C C FIGURE 18-14 Diagrams of normal canine or feline stomach in lateral and ventrodorsal projections. A, Canine stomach in lateral recum- bency. B, Feline stomach in lateral recumbency. The gastric axis is paral- lel with the ribs. C, Canine stomach in dorsal recumbency. The gastric axis is perpendicular to the spine, and the stomach is slightly U-shaped. D, Feline stomach in dorsal recumbency. The pylorus is located at the midline, and the stomach has more of an acute angle appearing J shaped. The major areas of the stomach are F, fundus; B, body; A, pyloric antrum; P, pyloric canal; C, cardia. 46%
Transcribed Image Text:11:52 p. m. Mar 28 mar. web.whatsapp.com cat in a lateral radiograph, usually indicates splenomegaly. In dogs there is more variation in the size of the spleen due to many factors, such as age and breed, as well as sedatives (e.g., barbiturates, phenothiazines) and other drugs that cause splenomegaly. Esophagus The esophagus is usually not visible on neck and thoracic radiographs. However, it is sometimes seen on the lateral view of the thorax, either dorsal to the trachea when a small amount of air is present in its lumen, or between the aortal and the caudal vena cava when the esophagus is fluid filled'. Pharynx The pharynx is an air-filled cavity at the conjunction of the respiratory system and the alimentary tract. The soft palate is visible as a band of soft tissue between the nasopharynx dorsally and the oropharynx ventrally. The laryngeal carti- lages are seen ventral and caudal to the pharynx. Often the pharyngeal side of the upper esophageal sphincter is also visible. The pharynx is best seen on a lateral view. Stomach 6,8 The stomach lies just caudal to the liver and cranial to the transverse colon. It is normally found within the rib cage, especially between meals, when the gastric contents are nor- mally air and a small amount of fluid. Thus it is important to include part of the rib cage when taking radiographs of the abdomen. Food is seen in the stomach as a granular material of mixed (air, soft tissue, and mineral) opacity. The radiographic aspect the stomach depends on the gastric content and the patient position. The stomach size and opacity vary according to the gastric contents, but generally, the size on a lateral view should not be more than two inter- costal spaces. This organ is located at the level of about the 10th to 12th intercostal spaces. If it is radiographed after a meal, the stomach can be two to three times larger. In cats the cardia/body portions of an empty stomach look like circular soft tissue opacity 2 to 3 cm in diameter, located to the left of the midline and caudal to the liver. The wall of the stomach with its rugal folds (gastric rugae) may be seen if the stomach is distended with gas or if it is emp The rugal folds are most evident in the cardia and pyloric regions. However, the wall, as seen radiographi- cally, may appear thicker than it really is, because of addi- tional soft tissue opacities (gastric content). It is, therefore, difficult to assess the gastric (and intestinal) wall on survey radiographs. The stomach can be divided into different portions-the cardia, fundus, body, pyloric canal, and pyloric antrum. The cardia lies just caudal to the diaphragm in the region of the esophageal hiatus. The fundus has a dome appearance at the left dorsal aspect of the stomach. The central located body is the largest portion of the stomach, lying between the fundus and pyloric portion. The pyloric portion is the distal third of the stomach that can be divided into the thin walled pyloric antrum (proximal two-thirds) and the CHAPTER 18 Small Animal Abdomen muscular pyloric canal (distal third) which contains a double sphincter. In the right lateral position, the pylorus may appear as a soft-tissue opacity that can be misdiagnosed as a mass or foreign body. If there is any doubt, a left lateral. view should be completed. The long axis of the stomach (a line drawn connecting the fundus and the pylorus) varies depending on the stage of respiration, size of the liver, and degree of gastric filling. In the lateral view, the long axis of the stomach should lie approximately parallel to the caudal ribs, perpendicular to the vertebral column, or somewhere between, in a dog or cat. For the VD view of the dog, the cardia, fundus and body of the stomach, are situated to the left of midline while the pyloric portions are to the right of midline. The pylorus in the cat is closer to the midline and the stomach is more acutely angled. In the lateral view, the axis appears almost vertical on the radiograph, whereas in the VD view the stomach has a horizontal appearance (Figure 18-14). The gas or fluid pattern within the stomach is influenced by the volume and ratio of fluid to gas and the position of the patient. If one compares the stomach with a J shaped balloon in a transverse plane that is filled with water and air, FRED 197 с C C FIGURE 18-14 Diagrams of normal canine or feline stomach in lateral and ventrodorsal projections. A, Canine stomach in lateral recum- bency. B, Feline stomach in lateral recumbency. The gastric axis is paral- lel with the ribs. C, Canine stomach in dorsal recumbency. The gastric axis is perpendicular to the spine, and the stomach is slightly U-shaped. D, Feline stomach in dorsal recumbency. The pylorus is located at the midline, and the stomach has more of an acute angle appearing J shaped. The major areas of the stomach are F, fundus; B, body; A, pyloric antrum; P, pyloric canal; C, cardia. 46%
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