Living cells actively“pump” positive sodium ions 1Na+2 from inside the cell to outsidethe cell. This process is referred to as pumping because work mustbe done on the ions to move them from the negatively chargedinner surface of the membrane to the positively charged outer surface. Given that the electric potential is 0.070 V higher outside thecell than inside the cell, and that the cell membrane is 0.10 mmthick, (a) calculate the work that must be done (in joules) to moveone sodium ion from inside the cell to outside. (b) If the thickness of the cell membrane is increased, does your answer to part (a)increase, decrease, or stay the same? Explain. (It is estimated thatas much as 20% of the energy we consume in a resting state is usedin operating this “sodium pump.”)

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Electric Charges and Fields

One of the fundamental properties is the electromagnetic property. Charge cannot be destroyed by any process and this contributes formally to the law of charge conservation.