A 3m layer of sand, of saturated unit weight 18kN/m, overlies a 4m layer of clay, of saturated unit weight 20kN/m. If the groundwater level occurs within the sand at 2m below the ground surface, determine the total and effective vertical stresses acting at the centre of the clay layer. The sand above groundwater level may be assumed to be saturated.

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Asphalt Binders and Mixtures

Asphalt binders are subsidiary products procured during the refining process of petroleum while manufacturing gasoline, diesel, and similar petroleum products. Asphalt binders are obtained from the residue that remains after the distillation of petroleum, this residue is further subjected to steam distillation and oxidation to remove the traces of gas oil present in the residue. Certain additives or modifiers are also added to asphalt binders to alter them to suit different applications.