Native Speaker Background

Confucianism

Korean culture has been shaped by Confucianism, a philosophy and ethical system developed by Confucius (551–479 BCE) around the 6th century B.C. According to Confucius, social order begins with the family, and the family as a unit is more important than individual members. There is a hierarchy of relationships in Confucian families, with fathers at the top and wives and children below them. Older siblings are higher in the ranking than younger ones. Those lower in the hierarchy are expected to show obedience and respect toward those higher, especially toward their elders. In return, their elders are expected to show benevolence.

During the Chosun Dynasty (1392–1910), Korean family relationships became more rigidly aligned with these ancient hierarchical ideals. Husbands ruled over their wives, and wives believed their duty was to serve their family and keep the home. Father-son relationships were emphasized, and thus women were expected to have sons and could be divorced for the failure to do so.

Modern life and industrialization have shifted Korean culture. In the 1950s, over 40% of Koreans still believed children should always obey their parents. By the time Chang-rae Lee wrote Native Speaker, it had dropped to less than 20%. This change shows the generational shift that was taking place during Lee’s lifetime, informing his portrayal of Henry Park’s relationship with his parents.

The Korean American Experience

In the late 1800s, under a new diplomatic relationship between the United States and Korea, a slow trickle of Korean immigration to the U.S. began. In the early 1900s, however, Korean immigration escalated. Famines and unrest in Korea pushed people to migrate, and Hawaii in particular had a pressing need for agricultural workers. The Immigration Act of 1924 then completely excluded Asian immigrants except for university students.

Korea fell under Japanese control from 1910 to 1945, during which time many Korean intellectuals and political refugees studied at American institutions. After Japan was defeated in World War II (1939–45), however, Korea became a proxy for Cold War tensions between the USSR and the United States. In 1948, the country divided along the lines of these purported allies into North and South Korea. The tensions sparked the Korean War (1950–53). In 1952, the McCarran-Walter Act loosened restrictions somewhat on Asian immigration. Further laws allowed Korean wives of American military members to immigrate and let children be sent overseas for adoption. These measures increased Korean immigration, but the war brides and the often biracial adoptees faced discrimination and cultural alienation. This time period also saw an influx of Korean students, businessmen and politicians.

In 1965, the Immigration and Nationality Act led to expanded Korean immigration. In 1976, about 30,000 Korean immigrants arrived. Over the next 15 years, Koreans constituted a large percentage of all immigration to the United States. This “third wave” of Korean immigrants were often college-educated and had held professional jobs in Korea. However, as immigrants they were held back by their lack of fluency in English. They often abandoned their previous careers and began their own businesses, such as grocery stores and dry cleaners, instead. However, they still had college degrees and valued them, and they pushed their children to attain higher levels of education. In Native Speaker, Henry Park’s father is part of this latest wave of Korean immigration. Although he trained to be an engineer, he ends up a grocer.