Climate Justice Racial Capitalism & Environemntal Degradation Final

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Running head: CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 1 Climate Justice, Racial Capitalism and Environmental Degradation Student’s Name Institution

CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 2 Climate Justice, Racial Capitalism and Environmental Degradation Introduction Climate justice is not just a term that acknowledges the negative impacts of climate change, but a movement concerned with climate change on a global scale and the fact that the people suffering the most from climate change implications are those least responsible. Apart from environmental and ecological concerns, it has been widely documented that climate change can warrant serious social, economic, and public health repercussions (Fisher, 2014). Researchers have also noted that underprivileged populations remain at the greatest risk considering that the impacts of climate change will affect them the most (Gonzalez, 2020). As global emissions continue to increase, the more the world remains susceptible to further climate change. If emissions are not mitigated in time to prevent permanent climate change, such as another rise in temperature by two degrees or more, then unprecedented repercussions await. Furthermore, it would be safe to say that the climate justice campaign failed to serve its purpose. However, climate justice as a term and a representation of all the wrongs that human beings are doing on the planet is intertwined with a plethora of other concepts. The majority of these concepts relate to or can be linked to the issue of climate change and climate justice. They either occur or are embedded within the roadmap from the onset of the Anthropocene Epoch and events that have led to the current predicament that the world is facing. For instance, climate justice is a call for concern on the current climate changes. However, in between, there are issues of environmental degradation, racism, colonialism, capitalism, climate migrations, and displacements, among other concepts and terms. Racial capitalism is among some of the issues that are linked to climate justice and climate change. An exploration of racial capitalism as a

CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 3 concept can describe how it is related to climate justice as part of the key drivers of climate change and environmental degradation. Literature Review Climate Justice 1 In recent times, climate justice has become a common term whenever the topic of climate change surfaces. It is a concept that is simple in definition but difficult to act on in terms of what it demands. Climate justice, as a concept, elaborates on social, economic, public health, and environmental issues such as natural disasters, among other issues that the globe is facing due to climate change (Fisher, 2014). The exact issues covered under climate justice can best be understood through the decades of research that has been conducted on climate science in relation to climate change as a result of human activities and influences. Climate change is also heavily linked with the onset of the Anthropocene Epoch, which describes a time when human activities began exerting significant impacts on the earth's geology and its ecosystems. However, despite the Anthropocene being a well-defined geological epoch, consensus on the onset of this phenomenon remains a conflicting matter. Certain researchers date it to the agricultural evolution, while others are pushing it forward to the 20 th century when human activities on the environment escalated (Hamilton et al., 2015). Additionally, the best consideration regarding the Anthropocene Epoch would be defining it as something that its onset and effects have spread out over time instead of focusing on a specific start date or era (Hamilton et al., 2015). Because of these escalated activities, the impacts that they have had on the environment and societies, the concept of climate justice is born. Not only has the natural world been impacted, but people, communities, and countries (Fisher, 2014). The underlying factor in climate justice is climate change, the social issue causing

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CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 4 an upset in people’s lives. The major concern is that these impacts of climate change are not equal and are unevenly distributed. Furthermore, those who are suffering the most are those least responsible for causing climate change (Gonzalez, 2020). Even though climate justice is related to the injustices associated with human activities on the planet and climate change, the concept is divided into four main but distinct aspects that are intertwined within the entirety of climate justice. Gonzalez (2020) defines them as distributive injustice, social injustice, procedural unfairness, and corrective injustice. Racial capitalism can be structured under social injustice because the exploitation of the earth and its resources is heavily linked to broader social matters such as racism, colonialism, and poverty (Gonzalez, 2013). Racial Capitalism Discussion on climate justice and climate change often see the term "Anthropocene Epoch mentioned" because it describes the onset of human activities that have warranted significant impacts on the earth's geology and ecosystems. The concept of the Anthropocene was introduced by Crutzen and Stoermer (2000) in their descriptions of human dominance on the earth and its resources resulting in the disruption of the earth’s natural processes that are critical in the maintenance and sustenance of human and non-human life (Crutzen & Steffen, 2003). However, discussions about the onset of the anthropogenic disruption of the earth’s natural systems and processes should not pass without considerations of how this was achieved, especially from a social and economic perspective. The anthropogenic journey is tainted by underlying issues such as colonialism, imperial dispossession, and promotion of a global capitalist order depicted by the abuse of nature and the large-scale exploitation of the human population segments, all in the name of development (Haraway, 2015; Moore, 2016).

CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 5 Furthermore, the role that racial capitalism played in the promotion of human and environmental exploitation has resulted in certain scholars proposing the notion of the Capitalocene and some of its impacts, such as the current social, economic, and ecological crises (Moore, 2016; Haraway, 2015). Others view racial capitalism from another angle in terms of racism and colonial violence (Gonzalez, 2020). Racism and colonialism became the driving forces in the exploitation and objectification of humans and nature (Gonzalez, 2020). The end result was a plethora of social, economic, and environmental issues spread across the globe, with the Global South situated on the receiving end. The relationship between Climate Justice and Racial Capitalism 3 The relationship between climate justice and racial capitalism stems from the correlation between racial capitalism and climate change. Thus, when racial capitalism is considered among the foundations of global climate change, this perspective reveals some of the climate injustice issues commonly discussed within society, especially those intertwined with racial capitalism. Through the racial capitalism lens, it is possible to analyze how race is involved in climate change discussions, especially when it comes to the history of carbon capitalism (Gonzalez, 2020). Davis and Todd (2017) mention the importance of involving indigenous studies and knowledge within the current discussions regarding the Anthropocene Epoch. Their argument is justified considering that the large-scale exploitation of the earth and its resources begin with the colonization of the Americas. The movement of the Europeans to the Americas was followed by the displacement and dispossession of the native Americans, which was accompanied by the transatlantic slave trade (Davis & Todd, 2017). These actions created space for the foundations of capitalism and its ideologies. The capitalist system established involved the exploitation of non-

CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 6 white populations and the promotion of white supremacy alongside extraction and dispossession (Davis & Todd, 2017). While there exists a lot of debates regarding the onset of the Anthropocene epoch, the majority of literature points out the 17 th century as a viable period. This era is backed by the Trans-Atlantic slave trade that gained traction during this period when slave labor was utilized for mining activities (Smith & Zeder, 2013; Yusoff, 2018). The Atlantic slave trade showcases another form of exploitation of non-white racial groups to promote capitalist endeavors. The slaves transported to America were initially used for mining activities to mine and extract gold, copper, and silver. Later on, they were deployed onto large-scale farms and worked to grow sugar and cotton (Yusoff, 2018; Gonzalez, 2020). The large-scale growth of these crops set the foundations for the onset of the industrial revolution, as explained by Yusoff (2018). Therefore, the industrial revolution would have been impossible in the absence of colonial activity and slavery. These were the underlying factors that fueled industrial development and the birth of carbon capitalism (Gonzalez, 2020). Therefore, racial groups became the key in promoting capitalist activities despite the implications it meant for non-white racial populations. Slavery and other acts such as violence that promoted the diminishing and dehumanization of other races, especially blacks by white supremacists, became the basis for current societal and economic issues affecting the globe. The atrocities exerted on non-white populations in the name of capitalism shaped the outcomes of contemporary capitalism (Soyapi & Kotzé, 2016; Gonzalez, 2020). What was taking place in the past during the colonial era and afterward has just but evolved into other forms of racial capitalism that see minority groups at the receiving end of societal, economic, and climate change issues. This is because their social and economic values have been degraded over time.

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CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 7 Currently, racial capitalism is still an issue, and it continues to impact minority groups the most in the global North and South. Furthermore, it remains intertwined with climate justice and climate change, considering the continued carbon and chemical emissions that not only degrade and destroy the environment but places human beings in the crosshairs of imminent threats from climate change (Saldanha, 2019). For instance, racialized communities remain the most affected by the extraction, processing, transportation, and combustion of fossil fuels (Gonzalez, 2020). The environmental implications of these activities mostly affect racialized communities. Across the globe, racialized communities are the main populations that have suffered because of petrol and chemical factories, power plants, evictions from ancestral lands, destruction of sacred sites, land, air, and water poisoning, the loss of fishing and hunting rights, among other things (Gonzalez, 2020). Furthermore, the majority of regions that are rich in valuable minerals and products include the middle east and the global South. As a result, Northern nations had to determine ways of accessing these precious goods at all costs. Initially, this established the grounds for the colonization of the Global South as the northern Nations sought supremacy and power (Moore, 2016; Yusoff, 2018). In their struggles for supremacy and power, the countries in the Middle East, India and other Asian countries and African countries fell victim (Moore, 2016). The results of these escapades at the expense of these non-white countries resulted in death, destruction, displacement, and the disruption of the systems in these countries. Additionally, Muslim and Arab populations became racialized in the process (Gonzalez, 2020). Currently, Muslims have a negative stereotype that has resulted in some of them being unable to travel to regions such as the United States just because they come from predominantly Muslim regions. These incidences indicate some of the ongoing issues associated with climate injustice. They are a chain of events

CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 8 sparked by acts of colonialism and capitalism at the expense of non-white populations and countries. Additionally, climate change has resulted in other significant implications for countries in the Middle East and the global South. The entire capitalism roadmap from the onset of colonialism, slavery, large-scale agriculture that promoted the industrial era, and the current levels of industrialization in the global North has resulted in significant climate changes. These events have continued to promote the depletion of the ozone layer because of carbon emissions. As a result, climate change, especially global warming, has resulted in several disasters such as drought, wildfires, floods, hurricanes, among other disasters. The concerning fact is that these disasters are disproportionately spread across the globe, with underprivileged communities suffering the most (Gonzalez, 2020). According to Mitman et al. (2018), the people suffering the most from these incidences can be categorized as non-white populations. Furthermore, their predicament is due to the geography of the regions that these populations are located. Some reside in regions such as small island states, coastal regions, and countries that mostly rely on agricultural and fishing activities as their main sources of income. However, their exposure to issues caused by climate change such as floods, drought, hurricanes, and rising sea levels places them at significant risks (Mitman, 2018). These issues would probably be non-existent, or they would occur at a much lesser frequency if global warming was not an issue associated with climate change. These regions were also rendered economically and socially vulnerable by the interferences of the global North by the North's economies and military involvements (Gonzalez). What Hamilton et al. (2015) and Gonzalez (2020) are referring to is the intentional underdevelopment of the global South nations by the Northern colonialists. The North neglected to assist the global South in its development both in the

CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 9 colonial and post-colonial eras. As a result, their underdevelopment rendered them unable to grow at a significant rate after the departure of the global North from these regions. As underdeveloped regions, they are incapable of dealing with issues related to climate change mainly due to a lack of proper resources. Furthermore, Gonzalez (2016) points out that the economic reform systems put in place by the global North to assist the South in their development endeavors do more harm than good. The imposed reforms from organizations such as the IMF and the World Bank alongside trade agreements and investment treaties between the North and the South have only increased poverty rates and diminished healthcare, education, and social services (Gonzalez, 2016). Therefore, the majority of the countries in the global South and Southeast Asian region remain deprived states that are unable to fend for themselves when it comes to disaster response and adaptations to climate change (Gonzalez, 2020). On the other hand, the majority of Northern countries are well- equipped to handle themselves in terms of disaster response and adapting to climate changes. Another problem related to racial capitalism and climate justice is the fact that the measures seeking to mitigate greenhouse emissions are hurting non-white racial communities both in the North and the South. Gonzalez (20) mentions the wind farm development in Mexico that has encroached on indigenous lands. The energy generated by these wind farms will be utilized by Walmart, Heineken, and Coca-Cola (Gonzalez, 2020). These are companies that are predominantly owned by white businessmen and women. The most concerning factor in this development is the lack of adequate compensation for the local communities or the sharing of the benefits of these developments with the locals. Furthermore, no systems of compensation for any loss or damages warranted by this project were considered (Zárate-Toledo et al., 2019). Mexico is not the only region where these concerns have been witnessed. Other interventions that are

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CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 10 designed to mitigate climate change while directly affecting racialized communities exist in areas such as Brazil, Canada, among other regions (Gonzalez, 2020). This is unfair to the global South and other racialized communities that have to suffer because of climate change and racial capitalism for the benefit of the global North. The fact that these racialized communities have contributed the least to global warming and climate change showcases the extreme levels of climate injustices existent across the globe. Furthermore, the global North is seeking other avenues that will allow them to continue their carbon emissions and capitalism trends through climate colonialism. Countries in the North have established ways of circumnavigating their need to reduce carbon emissions by establishing loopholes that allow them to function at the ecological expense of other countries. For instance, Germany banned the production of hard coal in its country but allowed the importation of coal from other countries. This defeats the purpose of reducing carbon emissions or being environmentally conscious. Other ways include activities such as initiatives that corporations utilize to offset their carbon footprints, such as the sponsorship of afforestation in developing countries. By doing so, they also cause the displacement of locals in these developing countries, especially in cases where the corporations buy these lands to use for their carbon footprint offsetting endeavors. Conclusion Overall, racial capitalism remains a significant driver of climate injustice even during current times. Racialized communities have been on the afflicted end of carbon capitalism and the onset of the Anthropocene epoch since the onset of colonialism. They continue to suffer this slow violence instigated by the imperialism and capitalism ideals of European nations and the global North in general. Much needs to change if this situation is to be resolved and the current

CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 11 climate change numbers become permanent. Once the predicted climate changes become permanent, especially in relation to the rising temperatures, it would be difficult to mitigate the disasters awaiting.

CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 12 References Crutzen, P., & Steffen, W. (2003). How Long Have We Been in the Anthropocene Era?. Climatic Change, 61(3), 251-257. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:clim.0000004708.74871.62 Crutzen, P.J., and Stoermer, E.F. (2000). The “Anthropocene.”Global Change Newsletter, 41, 17– 18. Davis, H., & Todd, Z. (2017). On the Importance of a Date, or, Decolonizing the Anthropocene. ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographies, 16(4), 761- 780. Fisher, S. (2014). The Emerging Geographies of Climate Justice. The Geographical Journal, 181(1), 73-82. https://doi.org/10.1111/geoj.12078 Gonzalez, C. (2016). Human Rights, Environmental Justice, and the North-South Divide. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2723460 Gonzalez, C. (2020). Racial capitalism, climate justice, and climate displacement. Oñati Socio- Legal Series, 11(1), 108-147. https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl/0000-0000-0000-1137 Gonzalez, C.G. (2013). Environmental Justice and International Environmental Law. In: S. Alamet al., eds. Routledge Handbook of International Environmental Law. New York: Routledge, 77–97. Hamilton, C., Bonneuil, C., & Gemenne, F. (2015). The Anthropocene and the Global Environmental Crisis: Rethinking Modernity in a New Epoch. Routledge. Haraway, D. (2015). Anthropocene, Capitalocene, Plantationocene, Chthulucene: Making Kin. Environmental Humanities, 6(1), 159-165. https://doi.org/10.1215/22011919- 3615934

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CLIMATE JUSTICE, RACIAL CAPITALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 13 Mitman, G., Armiero, M., & Emmett, R. (Eds.). (2018). Future remains: a cabinet of curiosities for the Anthropocene. University of Chicago Press. Moore, J. W. (2016). Anthropocene or Capitalocene?: Nature, History, and the Crisis of Capitalism. Anthropocene or Capitalocene, 34-76. Saldanha, A. (2019). A date with Destiny: Racial Capitalism and the Beginnings of the Anthropocene. Environment And Planning D: Society And Space, 38(1), 12-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775819871964 Smith, B., & Zeder, M. (2013). The onset of the Anthropocene. Anthropocene, 4, 8-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2013.05.001 Soyapi, C., & Kotzé, L. (2016). Environmental justice and slow violence: Marikana and the post- apartheid South African mining industry in context. Verfassung In Recht Und Übersee, 49(4), 393-415. https://doi.org/10.5771/0506-7286-2016-4-393 Yusoff, K., 2018. A Billion Black Anthropocenes or None. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Zárate-Toledo, E., Patiño, R., & Fraga, J. (2019). Justice, social exclusion and indigenous opposition: A case study of wind energy development on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico. Energy Research & Social Science, 54, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2019.03.004

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