Bioethics Assignment 1
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1. Immanuel Kant: What is The Supreme Principle of Morality ?
According to Immanuel Kant, ‘The Supreme Principle of Morality’
is the
categorical imperative (Kant’s Moral Philosophy, 2022). The cornerstone of
Kant's moral theory, the categorical imperative is the supreme rule for
identifying moral obligations and assessing the morality of deeds. Morally
worthy actions have to do with motive, quality of the will and the intention
with which the act is done. Motive is crucial and it must be of a certain
kind. Even if the good will accomplishes nothing, the motive, provided it is
morally sound, confirms its moral worth. Kant argues that an action is
morally permissible if and only if its underlying principle or "maxim" can
be consistently and rationally willed as a universal law that applies to all
rational beings. It requires individuals to act in a way that they could
rationally will to become a universal moral law (Kerstein, n.d.). The motive
of the duty carried out confirms morality.
2. Freedom- What is it?
According to Kant, freedom is not just the ability to choose the best
outcome out of possible outcomes. It is the ability to choose an entire
outcome autonomously. It is not just the ability to do as one wants. Kant
states freedom to be positive freedom, i.e. freedom as autonomy, and
negative freedom, i.e. freedom from coercion (Ware, 2023). Freedom as
autonomy is the ability to act according to one’s rational and moral laws.
The explanation of freedom as stated above refers to positive freedom. It
is the capacity to make moral decisions based on one’s choices as
opposed to making decisions to conform to universally moral principles.
This type of freedom is a reflection of the moral values of a person
because these values dictate a person’s choices. Individuals can act
freely, but guided by moral duty.
3. What is the difference between autonomy vs heteronomy? What is the
difference between categorical imperative & hypothetical imperative?
Autonomy refers to the ability of not having to choose the best end, but
choosing our own end. The ability to self-govern and make moral decisions
is referred to as autonomy. It is a person’s capacity to make moral
decisions and behave in accordance with reasoned norms and
unbreakable moral rules (Autonomy and Heteronomy, n.d.). Heteronomy
is the opposite of autonomy. It describes a situation in which a person's
decisions are made or affected by external forces, including social
conventions, outside authority, or internal motivations and inclinations
(
Kant’s Theory and Autonomy Vs Heteronomy | ipl.org, n.d.). The
Hypothetical Imperative is conditional and linked to particular objectives
or wants, whereas the Categorical Imperative is an unconditional moral
principle. The hypothetical imperative is subject to personal desires and
goals, and is therefore conditional. The categorical imperative is
unconditional and applies to all human beings. According to it, an action is
morally correct if it is in accordance with a universal law that applies to
everyone.
4. Explain freedom, duty, inclination & self-interest.
Freedom refers to the ability of individuals to make choices without any
external force or coercion. Duty refers to a moral obligation of acting
according to a morally accepted law or norm. Inclination refers to personal
desires, motives or preferences that make a person act a certain way.
Self-interest refers to actions done by an individual keeping in mind
personal well-being and benefit.
5. What is Utilitarianism? Has it got anything to do with morality?
Utilitarianism is a major ethical theory that is highly concerned with
morality and how moral judgements should be made. It is a normative
ethical theory, which implies that it gives a framework for deciding what is
ethically correct or incorrect. Utilitarianism is linked to the idea of
maximizing ‘utility’ (Ethics Unwrapped, 2023). It controls how judgements
are made, depending on the desire to maximize benefit or utility.
6. Are there any circumstances under which using another person for
purposes not benefiting that person is consistent with the Supreme
Principle of Morality?
According to Kant’s theory, using an individual for purposes that do not
benefit them goes against the Supreme Principle of Morality. However,
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there may be situations which are exceptions. If the person provides
consent and the activity achieves an overall sense of benefit, some
utilitarians can say that it does not go against the Supreme Principle of
Morality. Even certain emergency situations where activities are done to
prevent harm to a large number of people can have the same arguments.
Temporary discomfort of one individual can lead to overall benefit of a
society as a whole, and this is another circumstance where using one
person for purposes not benefitting that person as such is still consistent
with the Supreme Principle of Morality.
7. Does our desired outcome (the consequences) matter if we want our
actions to be moral?
This question can be answered depending on the perspective selected. If
one goes for a consequentialist perspective, the morality of an action is
highly determined by the nature of the outcome. A positive outcome
makes the action morally correct, while a negative outcome can make it
morally wrong. However, if one goes for a deontological perspective, the
morality of an action is not dictated by its consequences. Some actions
are inherently correct or incorrect morally
(
Consequentialism and
Utilitarianism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
, n.d.).
8. Each human being has absolute value as an end in and of ourselves.
Why?
Each human person is thought to have absolute value as an end in itself
since they have inherent worth, moral agency, and the ability to make
reasoned decisions. This notion serves as the foundation for respecting
individual autonomy, supporting human rights, and applying universal
moral norms to all persons impartially. Treating each individual as an aim
in itself is a fundamental premise in many ethical theories.
9. What confers moral worth on an action?
Moral worth of an action is determined by the fact if the action has been
done with positive intentions, respect for autonomy, adherence to moral
principles and overall benefit to others/society as a whole. Different
theories have different definitions of what makes an action morally worth.
10. Describe the hypothetical imperative vs the categorical imperative.
The hypothetical imperative is conditional and is based on personal goals,
likings, desires. On the other hand, the categorical imperative is
unconditional and states that actions should be done irrespective of what
the consequence is, irrespective of whether it aligns with personal goals
and likings. The categorical imperative provides unconditional moral laws
that are applicable to the society as a whole. It is a moral command
without having the outcome under consideration (
Kant’s Categorical
Imperative: Act the Way You Want Others to Act
, n.d.).
References
Autonomy and heteronomy
. (n.d.).
https://myweb.ecu.edu/mccartyr/GW/AutonomyandHeteronomy.asp
Consequentialism and Utilitarianism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
. (n.d.).
https://iep.utm.edu/consequentialism-utilitarianism/#:~:text=Consequentialism%20is%20the
%20view%20that,about%2C%20including%20the%20action%20itself.
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Ethics Unwrapped. (2023, February 22).
Utilitarianism - ethics unwrapped
.
https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/utilitarianism
Kant’s categorical imperative: Act the way you want others to act
. (n.d.).
https://effectiviology.com/categorical-imperative/
Kant’s Moral Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
. (2022, January 21).
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-moral/
Kant’s Theory And Autonomy Vs Heteronomy | ipl.org
. (n.d.). https://www.ipl.org/essay/Kants-
Theory-And-Autonomy-Vs-Heteronomy-FKS9JQPMUXPV
Kerstein, S. J. (n.d.).
Kant’s search for the supreme principle of morality
. Notre Dame Philosophical
Reviews. https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/kant-s-search-for-the-supreme-principle-of-morality/
Ware, O. (2023).
Kant on freedom
. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009070652