Module 1, Lesson 2 - SkeletalOutline
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PHI 1100
LESSON 2: RECOGNIZING &
SKELETAL OUTLINE
RECONSTRUCTING ARGUMENTS
Important Concepts:
indicator words
premise indicators
conclusion indicators
infer
statistical generalization
universal generalization
Notes on Text (Salmon’s Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking
, sixth edition)
I.
Chapter 1, III: Recognizing Arguments (pp. 14 - 18)
1.
When trying to identify an argument, one should: the first question to ask is what point the author or speaker is making. when we have identified the sentence that makes the point (the conclusion, if it is an argument), then we can ask what assertions, if any, are intended as support or evidence (premises) for that point.
2.
Explain what an indicator word is, and give examples: indicator words introduce the premisses or the conclusion of an argument. thus, and so, consequently, necessarily, hence, it follows that, and
for that reason
are all words that introduce the conclusion
of an argument.
3.
What are some other uses for indicator words that do not involve making an argument? the indicator terms for, since, thus, and
therefore
are also used in causal explanations of why something happened.
4.
On (p. 16), Salmon states that it can be difficult to determine whether something is an argument if one is unfamiliar with the subject matter. In her NCAA example, what
do you need to know to determine whether it is an argument? In many cases we must ask questions, examine the context for clues, or make “educated guesses” about the intent of a set of sentences before we can decide whether it argues for a conclusion or makes a causal assertion. 5.
What can you do when there are no indicator words present to help you determine whether a statement is the conclusion or the premises? When no indicator words are present, try to insert them to see whether the passage makes sense when reconstructed in this way. Depend on the context as well as the meanings of the sentences to determine whether someone is presenting an argument or instead a
2
series of unsupported assertions. we should ask ourselves (1) “what point is being made?” and (2) “what evidence is offered to support it?”
6.
How do you write an argument in standard form? Write each premiss on a line by itself. underneath the last premiss, draw a line, and write the conclusion beneath the line. II.
Chapter 1, IV: Extended Arguments (pp. 22-24)
1.
What is an extended argument
?
An extended argument is
one that has a main conclusion supported by premises which themselves are in turn supported by sub-
premises.
2.
What is a subargument
?
a part of an argument that provides indirect support for
the main argument
.
3.
What are different ways that an extended argument may use more than one argument? Some extended arguments attempt to establish a conclusion by stating premisses and, in addition, by producing evidence for those premisses.
4.
In the first example on p. 23, the main conclusion of the extended argument is supported by several reasons that include additional evidence. What is the main premise in (1), (2), and (3):
1. women tend to live an aver age of 5 years longer than men.
2. women who worked full-time, year-round earned only 80 cents for every dollar earned by men.
3. women also work fewer years than men, often because they are caring for children or elderly parents.
5.
Using the same example as # 4, what are the supporting evidence for each main premise in (1), (2), (3) 1.
According to the national Bureau for Health Statistics (2009)
2.
According to Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010)
3.
According to the Social Security Admin- istration
4.
Other Notes:
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III.
Chapter 1, V: Reconstructing Arguments (pp. 27-35)
1.
What does it mean to say that some arguments are “incompletely stated?” When an argument is incompletely stated some premisses and even the conclusion of the argument may be omitted.
2.
Define universal generalization
: Sentences that say that all or no members of one class are members of another class. 3.
Define statistical generalization
: generalizations that state that some proportion of members of one class are members of another class.
4.
Give an example of a statistical generalization that is stated numerically: ““Fifty-
three per- cent of American voters voted for obama in the 2010 presidential election”.
5.
Give an example of a statistical generalization that is not stated numerically: “most
families who drive new cadillacs are wealthy”.
6.
Why might a premise be omitted in the original argument? And what are some reasons that it is good, when analyzing arguments, to state those premises? ______
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
7.
What are some fallacies that can result from assuming the truth of an unstated premise or by not making an unstated premise clear: _________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
8.
Why is it important at times to include context for one’s argument? the context of an argument provides information that indicates something is true, although the argument itself attempts to establish that the situation is a good one or a bad one.
9.
What other additional material (apart from the support for the conclusion and the conclusion itself) may be included along with an argument? What is its purpose?___
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
10. Other Notes:
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4
Practice Exercises Complete the following problems from Exercise Sets 1.2-1.4 for your own practice. These will not
be graded. Similar problems will appear on Assignment 1 and the Module 1 Test. (The answers to these problems can be found in your textbook on p. 438-441)
From Exercise Set 1.2, Part I (pp. 18-19)
In each of the following arguments: Use the indicator words to help identify the premises and the conclusion. Circle the conclusion, and then write the argument in standard form.
2. People who say that America is facing inevitable decline as a world power are wrong because
the serious problems the US faces, such as massive debt, poor education and political impasse, all have solutions.
The serious problems the U.S. faces, such as massive debt, poor education, and political impasse, all have solutions.
__________________________________________________________________________
People who say America is facing inevitable decline as a world power are wrong.
6. Moral philosophy is an indispensable first step in that larger political campaign [for restricting
smoking] because we need to be persuaded that something ought to be done before there is any hope whatsoever that it will. -R.E. Goodin, No Smoking
We need to be persuaded that something ought to be done before there is any hope whatsoever that it will be done.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Moral philosophy is an indispensable first step in that larger political campaign [for restricting smoking].
From Exercise Set 1.2, Part II (p. 20)
In the following problem, the conclusion is enclosed in parentheses. Try to insert appropriate indicator words before sentences that are premises or conclusions, and see whether the passage
makes sense. With some choices, the sentences need to be rearranged.
2. The human mind is not the same thing as the human brain given that the human body, including the brain, is a material thing. The human mind is a spiritual thing. Nothing is both a material thing and a spiritual thing. -K. Campbell, Body and Mind
5
From Exercise Set 1.2, Part III (p. 21)
In the following problems, the indicator words
are italicized. Try to determine whether an argument is offered or whether the indicator words are used as part of a causal explanation, to indicate passage of time, or for some other purpose.
4. Since
Peter the Great, there has been a long, distinguished list of non-Westerners who have sought to bring the ideas of the West to their countries. –F. Zakaria, The Post-American World
Since here indicates the passage of time
6. This promotion of colleges to universities is consistent with the long-honored American custom of “raising” a thing by adding to the number of syllables used to describe it. For example, rain is raised to precipitation. College has only two syllables, and even seminary only four. But university, with five syllables, adds distinction. Thus:
University of Montevallo, Alabama….Upper Iowa University…Midwestern University, Texas. -P. Fussell, Class
The passage does not contain any argument, Thus in this passage introduces examples.
From Exercise Set 1.3 (p. 24)
Isolate the arguments in the following passage and identify their premises and conclusions. Write each argument in standard form.
2. Because publishers are aiming at a national market, the number-one criterion for any textbook is avoidance of controversy. Since they must respond to a variety of specific criteria from their buyers, this has resulted in what has been called the “dumbing down” of textbooks. -C. Holden, Science
235 (1987)
From Exercise Set 1.4, Part I
(p. 31)
Identify each of the following sentences as: 1. A universal generalization or 2. a statistical generalization. 2. College graduates earn more than those who have never been to college.
Statistical, more indicates statistical generalization.
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8. Politicians are honest.
Statistical, percentage is greater than 0 percent and less than 100 percent.
10. Computers are not immune to viruses.
Universal, no comparison in numbers/percents.
From Exercise Set 1.4, Part 2 (p. 32)
In the following selection, an unstated generalization is required to connect the premises with the conclusion of the argument. Try to supply a plausible generalization to complete the argument, and rephrase the now complete argument in standard form. 2. Using drugs is wrong because people addicted to drugs neglect their duties. -William Bennett
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