Module 1, Lesson 4 - Skeletal Outline
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PHI 1100
MODULE 1, LESSON 4
SKELETAL OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION TO INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS AND FALLACIES
Important Concepts:
inductive Arguments * Fallacy/Fallacious Argument * Fallacy of Equivocation * Stereotypic thinking * Appeal to Force * Appeal to Pity
Notes on Text (Salmon’s Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking
, sixth edition)
I.
Chapter 3, III: Inductive Arguments (pp. 91-98)
1.
What does it mean to say that inductive arguments are ampliative
?:
Inductive arguments can extend or amplify our factual knowledge. For this reason, we call inductive arguments ampliative.
2.
Which fields tend to rely on inductive inferences or arguments: Natural science, the social sciences, history, literary criticism, the practical knowledge of everyday affairs, and ethics.
3.
Explain what a causal arguments: A causal argument
is one that focuses specifically on how something has caused, or has led to, some particular problem.
4.
Salmon gives five other kinds of inductive arguments (pp. 92 – 93). Explain and give an original example of two different kinds of inductive arguments (Make sure to note the other kinds in “Other Notes”): Arguments that generalize on the basis of a sample of observations or experiments. Arguments that conclude that a further similarity holds on the basis of known similarities between two types of things. 5.
What are some words that can indicate that an argument is inductive? Probably, usually, tends to support, likely, very likely, and almost always. 6.
What are some differences between inductive and deductive arguments
? An important difference between deductive and inductive arguments is that whereas deductive support is an all-or-nothing affair (either the truth of the premisses is incompatible with the falsity of the conclusion or not), inductive support may vary in strength.
7.
Explain how an argument can combine inductive and deductive elements: 8.
Other Notes:
-
Arguments that conclude something about a particular case on the basis of what happens usually or frequently, but not always.
2
-
Arguments that conclude something about the future on the basis of what has happened in the past.
-
Arguments that conclude something about the past on the basis of present evidence
Chapter 3, IV: Fallacies (pp. 98-101)
1.
What is a fallacy and how is it different from making a factual error? Fallacies, or fallacious arguments, appear to support their conclusions, but appearances can deceive. Committing a fallacy is different from making a factual error. Although in ordinary language, the term fallacy can refer to false beliefs (particularly those that we believe because they are attractive to us), studies of logic reserve the term for mistakes in reasoning. From this standpoint, we can be mistaken about something without committing a fallacy.
2.
How does one commit a fallacy? To commit a fallacy, we must offer or accept nonevidence as evidence for a claim. 3.
What are some reasons that fallacies can mislead us?
Sometimes our emotions interfere with our power to make unbiased judgments. A conclusion can be so attractive that we are ready to accept almost anything offered as evidence in support of it. 4.
Give an example of a fallacy that exerts emotional pressure of some kind:
How can I believe that someone I love has betrayed me? 5.
Give an example of a fallacy that involves insufficient evidence or ignoring relevant evidence. A blatant example of this kind of fallacy would be to argue that a person was intelligent or stupid solely on the basis of the fact that he or she was a member of some racial or ethnic group. 6.
Other Notes:
3
Practice Exercises Complete the following problems from Exercise Sets 3.4 & 3.5 for your own practice. These will not be graded. Similar problems will appear on Assignment 2 and the Module 1 Test. (The answers to these problems can be found in your textbook on p. 448-449)
From Exercise Set 3.4, Part II (p. 96)
Identify the premises and conclusion of each of the following inductive arguments by circling or highlighting them and writing (
P or C). If the argument belongs to one of the six common types of inductive argument discussed in this section, identify which one.
2. The problem of obesity has reached epidemic proportions in America. Yet an article published by the Department of Agriculture suggests that people freely choose to overeat and that government efforts to combat obesity will not work. Paul Krugmen (
The New York Times, 7/8/2015) argues that because P “the history of government interventions on behalf of public health, from the construction of sewer systems to the campaign against smoking, is one of consistent, life-enhancing success,” C government action could help significantly to overcome obesity, America’s fastest-growing health problem.
Inductive generalization
6. [The Assistant Secretary of Health for the Department of Health and Human Services] released the results of the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, which examined a national sample of Americans over age 12, and the High School Senior Survey.
The surveys showed that P one out of three Americans over age 12 has tried some kind of illicit substance. This is an argument where we make conclusions about an entire population based on observations from a selected sample within that population.
8. There are events which are foreknown by persons who have applied their observation to that
end. C Of this kind are tempests and gales of wind, produced by certain aspects of the Moon, or
the fixed strs, towards the Sun, according to their several courses, and the approach of which is usually foreseen by mariners…
Since it is thus clearly practicable, by an accurate knowledge of the points above enumerated, to make predictions concerning the proper quality of the seasons, there also seems no impediment to the formation of similar prognostication concerning the destiny and disposition of every human being. P For by the constitution of the Heavens, at the time of any individual’s primary conformation, the general quality of that individual’s temperament may be perceived…[and] an event dependent on one disposition of the Heavens will be advantageous to a particular temperament, and that resulting from another unfavorable and injurious. From these circumstances, and others of similar import, the possibility of foreknowledge is certainly evident. -from Ptolemy’s Tetrabiblos
, cited in P. Suppes, A Probabilistic Theory of Causality
, 1970
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4
This argument draws an analogy between the control of weather by astronomical phenomena and the idea that human character or temperament is also influenced by astronomical phenomena.
From Exercise Set 3.5 (p. 101-102)
Point out the fallacious reasoning in each of the following selections:
2. In college, you can either be a serious student or establish beneficial social contacts. In later life, however, who you know is more important than what you know, so you would be well advised to let your studies slide in favor of an active social life. -
The argument implies that you must choose between being a hardworking student and a socially engaged student to be successful in life, but in reality, you can be both focused
on academics while maintaining a social life.
4. Of course the governor lost her temper and got emotional when she learned that some top officials in the state were taking graft – she’s a woman, isn’t she?
-
The person criticizing the governor is giving a stereotypical view of women as highly emotional creatures.
6. Despite reporters’ incriminating testimony to the grand jury, the president maintains that his chief-of-staff is not guilty of any wrongdoing. The president dismisses the charges, saying that he has known the man and has been his friend for more than 30 years.
-
In this situation, emotions are affecting the president's decision-making abilities. It might seem like he's trying to evoke sympathy for the accused by suggesting that he knows his chief-of-staff is a good person, despite the incriminating evidence against him.
8. Proof that every horse has six legs:
Behind they have two legs and in front they have fore legs. This makes six legs.
-adapted from J. Cohen, in R.A. Baker (Ed) A stress analysis
of a Strapless Evening Gown
, 1967
- “fore” in this quote means “in front” which is not the same as the number four although both words are pronounced the same, they have different meanings.