Wind Turbine Technology and System Considerations 02042020 3 slides

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2/6/2020 1 Wind Turbine Technology ENSC 220 Small Scale Wind Power • Utility Scale Wind Power – Larger Turbines • Larger than 100 kW • Most common today – 1.5 to 3.0 MW on land – Up to 6 MW off shore – Utility connected, built in farms • Small Scale Wind Power – Small Turbines • Up to 100 kW • Most common sizes – Below 1 to 10 kW GE 1.5 MW Bergey 10 kW Power in the wind (W) = 1 / 2  A V 3 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20 22 25 27 29 31 34 36 38 40 42 45 47 49 51 Wind Power (kW) Wind Speed (mph) The Power in the Wind (kW) for 8.2 ft dia Area 1 2 3

2/6/2020 2 Betz Limit • If you catch all the power in the wind you will stop the wind and won’t be able to convert it to rotational energy • If you catch none of the power you can’t turn it to rotational energy • There is a theoretical limit to how much you can catch and convert to rotational energy • Albert Betz 1919 calculated the limit to be – 59.3% Power in the wind (W) = 1 / 2  A V 3 And Betz Limit 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20 22 25 27 29 31 34 36 38 40 42 45 47 49 51 Wind Power (kW) Wind Speed (mph) The Power in the Wind (kW) for 8.2 ft dia Area Betz Limit Power in the wind Two Configurations • Horizontal Axis – All major manufacturers use this design – 2 or 3 blades are most common • Vertical Axis – Many have tried and failed with this design – Still a couple of small manufactures trying this 4 5 6

2/6/2020 3 Three Types of Small Turbines • Savonious • Darrieus • Horizontal Axis Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines National Renewable Energy Laboratory Innovation for Our Energy Future Savonius Wind Turbines (II) Helix Wind 7 8 9

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2/6/2020 4 National Renewable Energy Laboratory Innovation for Our Energy Future Darrieus Wind Turbines Straight-bladed rotor or H-rotor (I) Mariah Wind Power Pacwind Wind Spire Overspeed Control Approaches 1. Furling - some manufacturers are moving away from furling due to: – Concerns about sound levels – Inconsistent results – High forces on the turbine during furling 2. Constant-Speed Operation - induction generator, with a gearbox, is coupled to the grid frequency keeping the rotor at a constant speed 3. Dynamic Braking - slowing the rotor by temporarily increasing the load by the generator which slows the rotor, taking it into aerodynamic stall 4. Aerodynamic Stall - Stalls occur at the critical angle of attack , where induced drag (airfoil drag) exceeds lift 5. Variable-Pitch Blades - the blade angle to the wind is changed to reduce aerodynamic lift, activated by centrifugal forces or drive motors & controls Over-Speed Protection – Furling • Upward Furling: The rotor tilts back during high winds 10 11 12

2/6/2020 5 Over-Speed Protection – Aerodynamic Stall National Renewable Energy Laboratory Innovation for Our Energy Future Overspeed/Overpower Control is Difficult • VAWTs take wind from any direction, so they can’t turn out of the wind (furl) like a HAWT • VAWTs are fixed pitch, so they can’t pitch the blades to feather or to stall • VAWTs do not stall well by reducing rotor speed, rotor torque remains high – Oversized generator, or – Large brake • Overspeed control is difficult for a HAWT, too, but VAWTs have fewer options Abundant Renewable Energy, LLC From R. Preus Bergey XL (1 kW) 13 14 15

2/6/2020 6 Power (kW) Power Curve Bergey 1 kW Wind Turbine Power 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20 22 25 27 29 31 34 36 38 40 42 45 47 49 51 Turbine Power (kW) Wind Speed (mph) Power Curve Bergey 1 kW Wind Turbine Power 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20 22 25 27 29 31 34 36 38 40 42 Power (kW) Wind Speed (mph) Wind Power vs Power Curve for 1 kW turbine Power in the wind Power Curve Bergey 1 kW Betz Limit 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0-5 mph 5-10 mph 10-15 mph 15-20 mph 20 and Above % of year Wind Speeds Lincoln, NE 1996-2005 (hprcc data) 16 17 18

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2/6/2020 7 Weibull Distribution for Wind Power (kW) Power Curve Bergey 1 kW Wind Turbine Power 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20 22 25 27 29 31 34 36 38 40 42 45 47 49 51 Turbine Power (kW) Wind Speed (mph) Power Curve Bergey 1 kW 2803.2 3460.2 1790.544 562.2168 146.51976 0 0.19 0.42 0.8 1.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0-5 mph 5-10 mph 10-15 mph 15-20 mph 20 and Above Bergey 1 kW - Power (kW) Wind Occurance (hours per year) Wind Speed Bins Wind Occurance and Bergey 1 kW Power Curve 19 20 21

2/6/2020 8 0 657.438 752.02848 449.77344 219.77964 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0-5 mph 5-10 mph 10-15 mph 15-20 mph 20 and Above Energy (kWh) Wind Speed Bins Estimated Power Output Bergey 1 kW 2077 kWh/year Capacity Factor - Wind • Capacity Factor = 𝐴???𝑎? ???????𝑖?? 𝑀𝑎?𝑖??? ???????𝑖?? • 1 kW wind turbine 2077 1 ?? ×8760 ℎ???? = 0.24 • Efficiency = 𝐸???𝑔? ??? 𝐸???𝑔? 𝐼? = 𝐴???𝑎? ???????𝑖?? 1 2 𝜌𝐴? 3 Capacity factor for wind affected by - Winds different than rated wind speed - Down time for O&M - Winds below cut in, or above cut out Efficiency for wind affected by - Blades and ability to catch the win - Betz limit - Generator efficiency - Inverter efficiency 0 10 20 30 40 50 0-5 mph 5-10 mph 10-15 mph 15-20 mph 20 and Above Concord 0 10 20 30 40 50 0-5 mph 5-10 mph 10-15 mph 15-20 mph 20 and Above Lincoln 0 10 20 30 40 50 0-5 mph 5-10 mph 10-15 mph 15-20 mph 20 and Above Scottsbluff 22 23 24

2/6/2020 9 Utility-Scale Wind 25 26 27

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2/6/2020 10 Wind Turbine Design and Function Wildlife - Birds -Bats People - Use of electricity - Interaction Economics Environment Wind Turbines Exist in a Complex System Siting Issues • A viable wind energy site generally includes the following key factors: – Attractive wind resource – Landowner and community support – Feasible permitting – Compatible land use – Nearby access to an appropriate electrical interconnect point – Appropriate site conditions for access during construction and operations – Aviation compatibility – Favorable electricity market – Minimal impact on view-shed and avian population Nebraska - Average Monthly Wind Speeds at 40m 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Wind Speed (mps) Imperial 40 Kimball 40 Stuart 40 Valentine 40 Winnebago 40 28 29 30

2/6/2020 11 Major Drivers • Tax Credit – Federal Subsidy • Renewable Energy Standards – States – Utilities • State Subsidies – Property tax incentives – Sales tax incentives • Private citizens 31 32 33

2/6/2020 12 34 35 36

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2/6/2020 13 Wind In A Public Power State • 1. Public utility builds it , LES, OPPD, MEAN, NPPD • 2. Native tribe or nation no examples • 3. Community Based Energy Development (CBED) Bloomfield, Crofton • 4. Private Developer with Public Power PPA Humboldt (2010), Petersburg (2011), Petersburg (2012), Broken Bow (2012) Petersburg (2013) Steel City (2013) … … • 5. Private Developer for Export Saline County (spot market) LB 629, 2007 LB 561, 2009 LB 1048, 2010 $ Incentive Legislation - LB 104 2013 – sales tax for over $20 Mil - LB 402 2014 – sales tax help for CBEDs 37 38 39

2/6/2020 14 Wind Power Standard Generation • Coal – Sutherland • ~1360 MW – Nebraska City • ~1300 MW (NC #2 online in 09) – Grand Island • 100 MW – Hallam 225 MW (changing to NG/H) • Nuclear – Brownville • 800 MW Fort Calhoun 500 MW • Hydro – Kingsley – 50 MW – Gavin's Point – 130 MW • Natural Gas – Many locations and various sizes 2020 # of turbines Capacity (MW) Ainsworth 36 59.4 Broken Bow I 50 80 Broken Bow II 43 75 Creston Ridge 4 6.8 Crofton Bluffs 22 42 Elkhorn Ridge 27 80 Flat Water 40 60 Grande Prairie 200 400 Kimball 7 10.5 Laredo Ridge 54 80 Petersburg 27 40.5 Prairie Breeze 118 200 Prairie Breeze II 41 73.4 Prairie Breeze III 20 35.8 http://www.neo.ne.gov/statshtml/89.htm#graph Salt Valley 2 1.32 Springview II 2 3 Steele Flats 44 74.8 Valentine 1 1.85 Valley Station 1 0.660 Perennial 3 2.3 Seward 1 1.7 Creston Ridge II 3 6.9 Cottonwood I 52 90 Prairie Wind 1 2.5 Rattlesnake 101 318 Upstream 81 200 1,972 http://www.eia.gov/state/?sid=NE http://www.aweablog.org/top-nine-wind-energy-trends-of-2015/ 40 41 42

2/6/2020 15 Access Easement: An easement allowing the developer to travel across the property to reach the turbine areas Source: Google Earth Construction Easement: Often tied to access easement. Gives access for construction of turbines and support systems. May also allow for a “lay - down” area(s) Source: Google Earth 43 44 45

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2/6/2020 16 Transmission easement: gives access for transmission lines (underground and overhead) between turbines, substation, and transmission lines Source: Google Earth 46 47 48

2/6/2020 17 Overhang/encroachment easement: You agree to allow turbine blades to overhang your property, even if turbines are on adjoining property. Source: Google Earth Noise easement: Allows for noise from operations up to a certain level (usually measured in decibels [dB]), often within a specific radius. Source: American Wind Energy Association, available at http://www.awea.org/pubs/factsheets/092308_Sound_Factsheet.pdf Decommissioning 49 50 51