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1. Brehm, 1956 Brehm posed as a representative at an appliance store. He had several women rate and looked at the different appliances by their level of desirability. Brehm let the women know that by participating in this survey, they would be gifted a free appliance of their choice. The two highest-rated appliances were the appliances that the ladies had to choose from to take home. After the ladies made their choice, they were asked to rerate all the appliances again. Brehm found that their ratings were much lower on all the appliances and even more so in the appliance that was once their top 2 pick. 2. Gilbert & Ebert, 2002 They tested the irrevocability hypothesis. In this experiment, students interested in learning photography were allowed to participate in an investigation. They were told to take different pictures and to only pick 2 to print out. Out of the two they printed out, they could keep only 1. Half of the students were allowed five days to switch photos if they no longer liked the image they initially chose to take home. The experimenters found that students given the option to change pictures in 5 days were eventually unhappy with their choice. In contrast, the students whose picture chosen was final stayed happy with the photo they chose. 3. Lowballing technique Robert Cialdini temporarily joined a car sales store and watched how the salesman would tell a customer they could get them in a car of their liking for around $600 lower than the average asking rate. They would get the consumer to fill out paperwork and write out a check for the down payment. Just when the consumer is set on driving off in a new car, the salesman breaks the bad news(there was an error; instead of the lower price, it's actually around $200 above the average asking price). The majority of the consumers would still proceed with the sale for three reasons: they have the illusion of commitment because of the paperwork, verbal commitment, and the check they signed. Also, they have already put their mind on the idea of leaving with a brand new car. Lastly, it's only slightly higher than the average price, and they have already filled out all the paperwork(convenience) 4. Aronson & Mills, 1959 Consisted of screening processes. One group was rigorous, one was moderate, and the other had no screening process. The people who had the tougher process found the discussion they listened to more enjoyable than the control/no screening process

5. Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959 College students were told to perform boring and repetitive activities for an hour. They were told they were the control group, and the experiment was to see if students would fare better in boring tasks if they were told that the tasks were enjoyable by other students. When the next student arrives, the control group is told to tell the student that the tasks are enjoyable. Half the students are given $20 to tell the lie, and the other half are given $1 to tell the lie. After everything was over, an interviewer asked the lie-tellers how they enjoyed the tasks. The experimenters found that the students who were given more money rated the task as dull and boring as they were. The lie-tellers who got a small amount rated the study as pretty decent. In other words, people who had received an abundance of external justification for lying told a lie but didn't believe it. In contrast, those who told a lie without much external justification convinced themselves that what they said was closer to the truth. 6. Jecker & Landy, 1969 This experiment showed the connection between liking someone and doing the person you like a favor. 7. Aronson & Carlsmith, 1963 A researcher was experimenting on some pre-schoolers. One toy was forbidden and would result in severe punishment if touched and the other toy was a mild punishment 8. Steele, Hoppe, & Gonzalez, 1986 Self-affirmation theory) found that increasing self-esteem leads to decreased post-decision dissonance. Simple writing exercises increase school performance and the likelihood of going to college 9. Pleban & Tesser, 1981 They had students compete against other students who were accomplices to the researchers. The accomplices got most of the questions correct(self-esteem-related questions). The other students distanced themselves from the accomplices and decided they did not want to work with them again.

10. Tesser & Smith, 1980 In an experiment testing how humans protect their self-esteem, the student participants were invited to play a word game where a different person could give them hints to guess the word. The participants were paired with both friends and strangers who could give as good of hints as they wanted. This experiment was arranged, however, so that the people helping the participants had already played the word game and needed to do better. When the researchers indicated that this word game was simply a game, the participants' partners gave excellent hints to help. However, when told that the game was a test of intelligence, the partners gave much harder clues to the participants to preserve their own self esteem about performing poorly 11. Dunn, Aknin, & Norton, 2008 Conducted a field experiment by giving random people $20 to spend on themselves by 5 p.m. and another group of random people $20 to spend on someone else by 5 p.m. They found that the people who spent the $20 on others were much more happy about their spending. Proving less self-focus and focusing on others makes people happier. 12. Leippe & Eisenstadt, 1994 White college students were asked to write a counter-attitudinal essay publicly endorsing a controversial proposal at their university to double the funds available for academic scholarships for African-American students. Because the total amount of funds was limited, this meant cutting by half the amount of scholarship funds available to White students. As you might imagine, this was a highly dissonant situation. How might the students reduce dissonance? As they came up with more reasons for writing their essays, they convinced themselves they believed in that policy. And not only did they believe in it, but their general attitude toward African Americans became more favorable.

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13. Define cognitive dissonance. The discomfort people feel when they behave in ways that affect their self-esteem. 14 What are three ways to reduce cognitive dissonance? Change Behavior Justify behavior by changing one of your dissonance cognitions and justify behavior by adding new cognitions 15. Why does lowballing work? They have the illusion of commitment because of the paperwork, verbal commitment, and the check they signed. Also, they have already put their mind on the idea of leaving with a brand new car. Lastly, it's only slightly higher than the average price, and they have already filled out all the paperwork(convenience) 16. Define justification of effort. The tendency for someone to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain. 17. Define external justification. A reason or an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual (e.g., to receive a large reward or avoid a severe punishment) 18. Define internal justification.

The reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself. 19. Define counterattitudinal behavior. Acting in a way that runs counter to one's personal beliefs or attitudes 20. Explain the Ben Franklin effect. Justifying acts of kindness 21. Define hypocrisy induction. The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that differ from their behaviors, and remind them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior. The purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior. 22. Define the Self-Affirmation Theory. The idea is that people can reduce threats to their self-esteem by affirming themselves in areas unrelated to the source of the danger. 23. Define Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory. The idea is that people experience dissonance when someone close to them outperforms them in an area that is central to their self-esteem. This dissonance can be reduced by becoming less close to the person, changing our behavior to surpass them, or deciding that the area is not that important to us after all.

24. Define Terror Management Theory. The theory holds that self-esteem is a buffer, protecting people from terrifying thoughts about mortality. 25. How is narcissism relevant to our self-esteem It would help if you had high self-esteem, but too high of self-esteem can cause narcissism, which isn't good because people can't see themselves for who they are. They never learn from their mistakes and are incredibly unlikable.

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