Literature Review of EBP in Criminal
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Literature Review on Evidence-Based Policy in Criminal Justice
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Literature Review on Evidence-Based Policy in Criminal Justice
Abstract
African-American students are suspended at a higher rate than others, and the increased suspension rate is believed to affect the school-to-prison channel. The literature seeks to improve
the comprehension of this issue by concentrating on the elements that contribute to the school-to-
prison pipeline. An assessment of various literature developed by leading researchers was selected, and some showed that those working within the institutions were discriminative in their
interactions with African-American students. The unpreparedness and lack of support are considered a reason for this. Studies have also shown the similarities between various schools within and outside urban areas with many African-American students. They indicate that they use severe methods when disciplining students. The literature improves the comprehension of possible ways of handling the issue by detailing how enforcing practical restorative discipline initiatives may help deal with the school-to-prison pipeline.
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Introduction
In recent years, the killing of various African-Americans by the police has resulted in mass protests concerning how different racial groups are treated differently by criminal justice. The high rate of African-American arrests shows the discriminatory elements resulting in apprehension and convictions. The strategies used by law enforcement include frequent stops and
searches, and those criticizing the judicial system have always argued based on how the police poorly deal with Black Americans arrested for drug crimes. Studies show that African-Americans
use drugs in similar quantities and rates as other racial groups, but their encounter with the law is
higher. The discriminative approaches of searching, apprehending, and charging them are among the elements studies use when detailing the increased rates of arrests they experience. The methods used to discipline African-American students increase the rate at which they leave school and become prone to arrests. Schools with more Black students have a higher chance of using harsh punishments when disciplining them, making them suspended more. Eradicating the methods used to punish them is essential since the high incarceration rate among African-American students is bad for society. The additional number of arrests means more resources are used to create and sustain prisons, and studies indicate that enforcing proper restorative actions when it comes to discipline in such learning institutions is a good way that may mitigate the high incarceration rate of African-Americans. Some studies offer compelling evidence indicating that the harsh methods used by schools to discipline students increase their chances of getting into trouble with the criminal justice system. The literature helps comprehend the school-to-prison pipeline by concentrating on the elements that result in the issue and details how various approaches relating to criminal justice may reduce the problem. An assessment of
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multiple types of literature in the area details the issue and the concepts showing how enforcing initiatives focusing on restorative justice may help solve this.
Increased Rate of Students Suspended.
The National Center for Education Statistics indicates that African-American learners are suspended more often than other groups (de Brey et al., 2019). When comparing the rate of out-
of-school suspension between African-American students and White students, the institution shows that the former is suspended more than four times more than White students. Even though other minority groups are suspended more than White students, the rate of Black-American students is alarming. The government, through the U.S. Department of Education, found that African-American students in K-12 were four times more likely to be suspended than their White
counterparts. It is believed this leads to an increase in them leaving school and becoming arrested since
when they are out of school, they are unsupervised and alienated from an environment that provides structured surveillance, thus increasing their chances of venturing into crime. Studies considered information from a juvenile and a school district to assess if the suspensions correlate
with unlawfulness. It was discovered that the suspensions increase their chances of being incarcerated (Skiba et al., 2014). The suspensions also lead to spending more time in class, thus making it difficult for those affected to thrive academically. An assessment to understand the correlation between academic success and suspensions showed the relationship was inverse.
Aspects that Increase the high rate of students being incarcerated.
Studies show numerous factors increase the chances of students leaving school and being arrested. Some show that those working within the school, including teachers and law
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enforcement officers deployed in schools, are biased when responding to cases involving African-American students (Nance, 2015). Teachers are not adequately prepared and provide little support to students, and the severe punishments African-American students go through, particularly in institutions with many Black students, worsen the situation. Those from impoverished backgrounds also have to endure institutional bias that characterizes the educational system. This means they have to attend learning institutions with less qualified teachers and more law enforcement officers in school (Deschenes et al., 2001).
Institutional bias is correlated to arrests. The country's education system indicates the bias
African-Americans experience since they are more likely to learn in low-quality schools that record increased student dropout rates (Kurtz-Costes et al., 2014). This increases the likelihood of them being arrested since dropping out of school is correlated to being imprisoned in the future. Studies show that those who drop out of school have a higher chance of going to prison than those who complete high school. The institutions also employ less qualified teachers than those with few minority students. This increases their chances of being taught by teachers who cannot deal with them since they do not understand how to deal with students from various backgrounds. Learners in these institutions go through stress, and this makes them angry. The unqualified teachers may feel they are rude and forward them to the law enforcement personnel in the institution but their behavior is attributed to the insecurity they experience due to the impoverished living conditions (Curtis, 2013). Also, the recruitment of less qualified teachers means students in the institutions will likely not get the education needed to prepare them for college.
Studies examining why African-American students get more out-of-school suspensions showed that administrators were biased toward them. The studies illustrated that African-
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American students were more likely to be seen as stubborn than White students, even if they exhibited similar behaviors (Aronson et al., 2002). It is suggested that efforts to mitigate the increasing number of students leaving school and getting arrested should concentrate on school administrators since they make decisions relating to suspensions and expulsions. Teachers also have a biased attitude toward the students. Such biases lead to disparities in punishment outcomes since they rely on how teachers see a student's behavior. The results are helpful since there are fewer African-American teachers in the education system despite minority students accounting for 40% of the student population in elementary and secondary learning institutions. The discriminatory practices are also evident in how new students, especially toddlers, relate with their first teachers. Studies showed that even for those in preschool, educators were likely biased against African-American children (Burchinal et al., 2002). When preschool learners of different races were given the same tasks, the educators paid more attention to African-American
children, particularly the boys. This may be attributed to the existing racial bias in learning institutions.
When looking at urban schools, the disciplinary procedures used on African-American students increase the number of those leaving school and getting arrested. The learning institutions have more law enforcement personnel compared to guidance staff compared to other learning institutions. From the 1970s to the early 2000s, there was a sharp increase in police officers deployed in learning institutions. Most of them, also referred to as school resource officers (SROs), were deployed in urban learning institutions that African-Americans mostly attended (Pigott et al., 2018). This became an issue since previous student problems that school employees dealt with were forwarded to the police, and this increased their chances of being arrested. The SROs were tasked with implementing criminal law, and various violations within
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an institution could be translated as criminal violations by law enforcement. Apart from the additional number of police officers and security personnel in the learning institutions, there has been a sharp increase in the use of surveillance devices like CCTVs. The institutions are more likely to enforce strict rules regarding dress codes, student identification, and access and also use metal detectors on them. The additional security measure increases learners' chances of being confronted for violating the rules. There is also the issue of the lack of experience of the SROs and security personnel when dealing with learners. The SROs
do not have adequate knowledge on how to deal with learners, which may make them see various misconducts as crimes, thus resulting in severe punishments (Lynch & Chappell, 2021). Another factor that contributes to the increased rate of arrests among students is alternative schools. Black students are more likely to be referred to these institutions. The problem with them is they increase their interactions with law enforcement since most of them collaborate with
the juvenile justice system. This collaboration means they can give incriminating information to the police officers, and law enforcement may consider the institutions high-risk, thus constantly monitoring them. Even though having police officers in learning institutions is meant to ensure they are safe and secure for students and staff, many see their presence as a stimulus for criminalizing learners' misconduct (Martinez-Prather et al., 2016). Even though most of the existing studies on their presence concentrate on how it relates to the school-to-prison pipeline, there is inadequate research detailing the type of training the SROs to get and how it affects the rate of discipline in learning institutions.
Solutions
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There are various ways to deal with this. Enforcing restorative initiatives in the institutions instead of out-of-school suspensions and expulsions that exclude students can be effective in mitigating the increased discipline rates among African-American students (Anyon et
al., 2014). Studies have shown that using restorative initiatives to replace suspensions and expulsions results in a sharp drop in various suspensions. To ensure the programs are sustainable,
the learning institutions should enforce restorative discipline. Initiating a restorative program requires school administrators and other personnel to comprehend the programs that result in the most gains to ensure students do not participate in ineffective programs. Studies indicate that the programs should be included in an institution's culture, and the objectives should focus on creating a tolerant, supportive, and respectful atmosphere between staff and students. The atmosphere should have various characteristics, one being active listening, especially among administrators and staff when dealing with students.
Implementing the Solution
Restorative initiatives have become popular since previous solutions like zero-tolerance policies were ineffective. The guidelines were introduced to mitigate drug trafficking and abuse and the increasingly violent crimes in learning institutions. This was later used to suspend learners engaging in non-dangerous school violations, and currently, institutions use it to punish less serious offenses like failing to attend class or swearing. Many feel the method was destructive since it did not solve the problems. Restorative initiatives develop foundations emphasizing increased communication and resolving issues without exclusionary punishments (Fronius et al., 2016). It entails involving the community to build and strengthen relationships while reducing the rate of offenses.
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The measures used in restorative initiatives are based on using proper language to allow teachers to encourage learners to be self-aware of their actions and the need to rectify various behaviors before they grow into serious problems. The idea is to strengthen students' emotional skills using the right questions and statements. Another concept incorporated in the initiative is educators using the procedures to create a sense of togetherness and strong relationships among learners. Students are made to sit together and discuss various topics. The teachers encourage them to express their opinions honestly while being compassionate and responsible. The meetings happen when one has been wronged. To solve the issue, a meeting is done to allow those involved to meet and talk about how they feel and the steps that should be adopted to rectify the problem.
Not many studies focus on restorative initiatives, and although various reports on the topic show that it has positive impacts, many studies lack the credibility to state that implementing restorative initiatives leads to positive outcomes (Gregory et al., 2016). There has only been a single experimental study on restorative initiatives in the public domain. It illustrated
that a restorative initiative resulted in a reduction in the duration learners spent out of class due to suspension and a significant reduction in the rate of school-level suspensions. The initiative improved academic scores and reduced the likelihood of students joining alternative learning institutions. There were negative outcomes like it did not impact one's chances of ending up in prison.
The results were assessed within two years; this may have been short since it takes four years to get the desired effect from restorative initiatives. Various restorative initiatives display varying results due to varying ways of implementation. Evidence has shown that restorative initiatives can mitigate racial disparities across multiple disciplinary approaches, but there are poor
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methods used in implementation that undermine the gains. Strategies that negatively affect the implementation include using methods based on a single restorative initiative, methods that do not incorporate values emphasized by restorative initiatives, the lack of adequate support, under-
resourced and short-term initiatives, and colorblind strategies (Schiff, 2013). Conclusion
The increased arrests among African-Americans is a severe issue that should be handled. Studies on discipline in learning institutions indicate that the punitive strategies used by learning institutions with many African-American students add to the problem. The identified causes include biased school personnel, unprepared teachers, and teachers lacking the support needed to
handle the students. There is also the problem of institutional bias engrained in the educational system. Such problems can be solved by enforcing an effective restorative initiative. Even though there is little research on restorative programs, existing research indicates that the outcomes are positive when implemented correctly. Using effective restorative initiative programs would allow school administrators and personnel to deal with the problem of school children increasingly dropping out and venturing into crime.
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References.
Anyon, Y., Jenson, J. M., Altschul, I., Farrar, J., McQueen, J., Greer, E., ... & Simmons, J. (2014). The persistent effect of race and the promise of alternatives to suspension in school discipline outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 44, 379-386.
Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of experimental social psychology, 38(2), 113-125.
Burchinal, M. R., Peisner-Feinberg, E., Pianta, R., & Howes, C. (2002). Development of academic skills from preschool through second grade: Family and classroom predictors of developmental trajectories. Journal of school psychology, 40(5), 415-436.
Curtis, A. J. (2013). Tracing the school-to-prison pipeline from zero-tolerance policies to juvenile justice dispositions. Geo. LJ, 102, 1251.
Deschenes, S., Cuban, L., & Tyack, D. (2001). Mismatch: Historical perspectives on schools and students who don't fit them. Teachers College Record, 103(4), 525-547.
de Brey, C., Musu, L., McFarland, J., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., Diliberti, M., Zhang, A., ... & Wang, X. (2019). Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 2018. NCES 2019-038. National Center for Education Statistics.
Fronius, T., Persson, H., Guckenburg, S., Hurley, N., & Petrosino, A. (2016). Restorative Justice in US Schools: A Research Review. WestEd.
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Gregory, A., Clawson, K., Davis, A., & Gerewitz, J. (2016). The promise of restorative practices to transform teacher-student relationships and achieve equity in school discipline. Journal
of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 26(4), 325-353.
Kurtz-Costes, B., Swinton, A. D., & Skinner, O. D. (2014). Racial and ethnic gaps in the school performance of Latino, African American, and White students.
Lynch, C. G., & Chappell, A. T. (2021). Policing the school-to-prison pipeline: a qualitative study. Journal of school violence, 20(4), 627-636.
Martinez-Prather, K. E., McKenna, J. M., & Bowman, S. W. (2016). The impact of training on discipline outcomes in school-based policing. Policing: An International Journal of Police
Strategies & Management.
Nance, J. P. (2015). Students, police, and the school-to-prison pipeline. Wash. UL Rev., 93, 919.
Pigott, C., Stearns, A. E., & Khey, D. N. (2018). School resource officers and the school to prison pipeline: Discovering trends of expulsions in public schools. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 43(1), 120-138.
Schiff, M. (2013). Dignity, Disparity and Desistance: Effective Restorative Justice Strategies to Plug the" School-to-Prison Pipeline".
Skiba, R. J., Arredondo, M. I., & Williams, N. T. (2014). More than a metaphor: The contribution of exclusionary discipline to a school-to-prison pipeline. Equity & Excellence in Education, 47(4), 546-564.
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