Exploring the Foundations of Human Society in World History

\\ UCS Adult Ed World History A A : 1. THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN SOCIETY COURSE OVERVIEW World History explores the people, events, and ideas that have shaped history from the beginnings of human society to the present day. Students will study such topics as ancient civilizations, empires, exploration, the world wars, and globalization. Students will also gain practice in research using technology and writing through various projects. In addition to the default course program, World History includes alternate lessons, projects, essays, and tests for use in enhancing instruction or addressing individual needs.  Unit 1: Students will discover how history is studied and the methods that are used to gather information. They will identify the early humans, their characteristics, and lifestyles.  Unit 2: Students will know the characteristics of a civilization and identify the early river valley civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China. They will examine how those civilizations evolved, agriculture developed, and kingdoms emerged.  Unit 3: Students will describe the classical traditions, development of major religions, and the growth of giant empires by looking at the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and the Chinese.  Unit 4: Students will explain the reasons for the fall of early empires, examine changes in religions, and identify the effects of migration and trade on the New World.  Unit 5: Students will identify the emergence of the Middle Ages in Europe. They will examine the dominant religions of Europe, Asia, and the Middle East, while also discovering the civilizations of Asia, Oceania, Africa, and the Americas.  Unit 7: Students will know the reasons for and effects of exploration and colonization by European countries. They will examine the history of imperialism, the Renaissance, the Inquisition, and the Reformation.  Unit 8: Students will evaluate the many revolutions and conflicts that took place from 1750-1914 in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin

America. They will also identify the characteristics of the Industrial Revolution and European Imperialism in Asia and Africa.  Unit 9: Students will compare and contrast the causes and results of the World Wars. They will also gain knowledge on the Boer War and the Russian and Chinese Revolutions.  Unit 10: Students will understand the major events of the Cold War. They will also examine the effects of World War II including independence movements and globalization.  Unit 11: Students will describe the major issues affecting nations today, including globalization, population growth, pandemics, and immigration. They will also examine types of economic systems and the history of capitalism. Additional Supplies The following supplies will be needed to complete the course projects. World History Unit Assignment Title Supply List All All Projects, Reports, and Essays  Internet, encyclopedia, or other research materials  Paper, pencils or other writing materials  Printer 1 Project: Point of View  a community, state, or national newspaper 5 Project: Planning for a Crisis  multimedia, presentation development software 9 Project: Change the World  multimedia, presentation development software (optional) 11 Project: Scientists and Inventors  multimedia, presentation development software ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

STUDYING HISTORY Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. —George Santayana (1863 – 1952), Reason in Common Sense This year, in world history, you will study civilizations and events that you may have read about in earlier grades. Studying world history is not a punishment, as some students may think. Nor should you approach the study as trying to memorize dates, facts, concepts, and people that are not recognizable or currently living. Don't look upon world history as that dry old stuff that killed the Pilgrims and is now boring you. Instead, focus on world history as the story of people. A story of what people did, thought, and attempted to do; how they made a living; what made them happy and angry. The most interesting stories you read are usually about people. Enjoy reading about the choices made by people that have affected the world—and you! OBJECTIVES  Define the term history.  Identify three reasons for studying history. VOCABULARY history the human record of people and their relationships culture all the knowledge and values shared by a society society a group of people with common practices, activities, and interests civilization a highly developed society pattern observable tendencies of a person or group

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DEFINITION OF HISTORY As the teacher points out in the comic above, history is about all those things—and so much more. As you begin this year's study of world history, you ought to know what defines history. Each of us has a different idea about what the term history means. For example, you might think of history in reference to a former boyfriend or girlfriend. "Him? He's like so-o ancient history!" A district attorney might say a criminal has a history of violence. Either understanding of history is correct. We know exactly what they are saying. However, neither actually explains what history is for the purposes of this course. You probably remember past history classes that were filled with dates and facts that had to be memorized. You might have been so occupied making sure all those details were put to memory that you did not read between the lines of historical moments frozen in time. History should be viewed as a great story. It is the narrative of peoples' lives. Like any good novel, it contains main characters, love, war, revenge, and peaceful conflict resolution. Each episode is set in its own unique time and place. Investigations: Connecting Communities There are more than 17,000 museums in the United States, full of paintings, objects and artifacts from the past. Someone has to collect and care for it all, and that person is called the curator. In any given day, a curator can be found conducting tours, creating

new exhibits, and doing researching and writing about their displays. Preserving history in a museum is a way to connect the past to those living in the present and the present to the future. JARED SMITH [Museum Curator]: A museum is really a place to share that history in a three-dimensional sense, in a sense of photography, in a sense of written archives, in a sense of oral histories. History should be fun too. Certainly, you want to engage people and get people excited about it. It's important to know that history, because otherwise people come from an uninformed place and they approach things without the basis that would help them make good decisions. NARRATOR: [1920 fire truck] Curators bring history to life by showing the differences between what we have now as opposed to what people had before us. This 1920s fire truck is a great example of how far we've come. JARED SMITH: This was a big departure from what they had before. It would have been either horse-drawn or hand carts pulled by firemen to the scene of the fire. This was a huge leap in technology. NARRATOR: Curators encourage the public to preserve their history by making donations to museums. JARED SMITH: It's definitely a good thing for people to think about donating objects because when people see an object like, oh, well there's our family’s hundred year old table, somebody else says oh, well we've got our family’s old telephone, or we've got their old fan, or we've got grandma's diary. Then they can share details about it, they can help you understand why it’s significant to their family, and therefore, why we can appreciate it as a significant object in the community. You want objects that have some significance to the place, and I think it's really kind of forming a bridge; we're bridging folks to their history. NARRATOR: The work of curators unravels the mysteries of history one piece at a time. JARED SMITH: It's something you always add new information to, so it's kind of an ever-changing thing. It's detective work to put the pieces together. It helps me to understand the history better, and the more I understand, the better I can answer people's questions about this history. If I'm able to help people to get to the next step, then it's a tremendous satisfaction.

It is important to remember that individuals and their relationships with others have helped to create the world as we know it today. It did not just "happen." What you do today will become another student's history one hundred years from now. Every generation has added another chapter to the history of the world, and each chapter ends with a "to be continued." You are an important part of the chapter being currently written. Because history is one long book, every culture , society , and civilization is interconnected. You are bound to the previous chapter just as the next generation of students will be attached to yours. Defining History An important part of any story is the setting; history is no exception. History tells the story of humanity in the setting of its various cultures [images pop up showing people from different eras and different countries]. But what is culture? Think about all the things that make you who you are: where you live, what you eat, what you believe, the things you like to do. All of that is a part of your culture. Human culture includes the customs, government, religion, economics, technology, art, architecture, and literature of the communities that have populated the earth throughout human history [images pop up of people of different cultures, money, religious symbols]. The facts and events that make up history can only be really understood in the context of the culture in which they took place. Martin Luther King Jr's, "I Have a Dream" speech [Martin Luther King ready to give his speech] is not as powerful without an understanding of the culture of racism in the United States at the time. The current conflicts in the Middle East are just the most recent events of a long cultural struggle involving religion, politics, and economics. Studying history is not just about remembering dates and events; it is about understanding people and their relationships with each other and their environment. It is also about recognizing that the history we study represents humanity's effort to record what was important, what they wanted us to know about themselves and their world. For this course, then, let us say that history is the recorded story of the interaction among people, the environment, and the ideas that form cultures, societies, and civilizations.

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Key point! History is the human record of people and their relationships. Why study history? There are three important reasons for studying history:  History connects the past to the present.  History reveals contributions of ancient civilizations.  History shows us patterns.  Match the vocabulary term with its meaning. 1 . history all the knowledge and values shared by a society 2 . culture a highly developed society 3 . society the human record of people and their relationships 4 . civilization a group of people with common practices, activities, and interests 5 . pattern observable tendencies of a person or group Select all that apply. History is the story of the interaction between _____. environment ideas societies people The three important reasons for studying history are _____. to connect the dots to form a picture to reveal past contributions of civilizations 2 4 1 3 5

to connect the past to the present to memorize important dates, events, and people to recognize patterns Select all that apply. Connecting the past to the present helps you to know how people have _____. shown their independence from others chosen to deal with conflict maintained unity through time solved their problems hidden their true nature from the world Select all that apply. Recognizing patterns helps you to _____. avoid making mistakes in the future make sure history always repeats itself understand human nature and behavior know there is no way to predict the future //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// HISTORICAL FIELDS AND METHODS Do you remember the feeling of panic the last time you could not find your house keys? Remember frantically searching through every room and dresser drawer or retracing your previous steps to find the keys? In many ways, historians and those who study history are looking for lost keys from the past. If past events truly are the "keys" to understanding the happenings of today, then we should want to learn all that we can about previous events. However, who do we turn to

for information about those events? How does one gather information about history? Who studies history? In this lesson, you'll explore the answers to these questions. You'll find that many scholars from different fields of study supply the information we need to know about our history. These scholars use special methods and apply important skills in order to acquire the necessary information. Their work is essential in discovering the keys that help us to "unlock" a true understanding of the connections between past, present, and future. OBJECTIVES  Explain the historical method that is used to study the past.  Identify the fields of study involved in historical research.  Describe the scientific methods that are used in historical study. VOCABULARY anthropology the study of humans archaeology the study of the lives of early human communities through the examination of t artifacts objects made by humans that are unearthed by archaeologists chronological order an arrangement of events in the order in which the events took place etymology the study of the origins of words geology the study of the earth, especially its rock forms historical method the collecting, classifying, analyzing, and interpreting of data linguist a person who studies language linguistics the study of human language

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scientific method the processes and procedures by which we acquire information WHAT IS A HISTORIAN? The men and women who discover, study, interpret, and write history are called historians. One purpose of the historian is to present the past to people in the present so that they can learn from the mistakes and successes of previous generations. The historian tries to accurately and fairly write the known history of the human race. By using the historical method of collecting, classifying, analyzing , and interpreting data, the historian can draw conclusions about history and how it affects us. Kinds of historians. There are many kinds of historians. For the purpose of this lesson, we will cover five of them: the archaeologist , geologist , anthropologist , linguist , and etymologist . ARCHAEOLOGY AND GEOLOGY An archaeologist studies the lives of early human communities through the examination of their physical remains. This is the science of archaeology. He or she gathers information about early communities using scientific methods . He or she will find a specific location—called an excavation site—and begin searching for the remains of ancient societies. During the process of sifting through the earth, he or she will uncover artifacts , which are human-made objects such as pottery, weapons, and tools. Generally, the deeper an archaeologist has to dig, the older the artifact. It is not uncommon to find ancient cities built directly on top of yet older communities. As a result, one excavation site can reveal a wealth of knowledge about the history of a single people group. What can be learned by unearthing past remains? Upon examination of an ancient tool, an archaeologist can determine the level of technology that culture possessed and how they used their knowledge. When a number of such digs are reported around the world, patterns of development appear. After enough information is gathered, a determination

can be made as to why that society thrived or why it died out. This knowledge can help those living in the present to make better choices. These artifacts also tell the story of how long it took a culture to develop more advanced tools or when they mastered the art of forming metals. Metallurgy is a sign that a society has developed some particular understanding of the earth around them. Archaeology and Geology Archaeology Archaeology is the study of the past through examination of the physical remains of early human communities Archaeologists use scientific methods in the excavation [A hand using a brush to dust an artifact], analysis, and dating of artifacts such as pottery, weapons, and tools. [Rock arrowheads] They must be careful and methodical in excavating artifacts, so as not to disturb important clues about the past. Archaeologists make hypotheses about the civilizations they are studying and then look for evidence to support or contradict their hypotheses. Generally, the deeper they dig, the older the artifacts they find. Sometimes they can find entire other, older cities under the ones they are excavating. [image of underground aspects to an ancient city while in an excavation] A single excavation site can reveal the timeline of a people through hundreds and even thousands of years. Geology Geologists also reveal history through excavation, but geologists are looking for natural clues provided by the earth, especially rock forms. Geologists have scientific methods of determining how old a rock, or a layer of rocks. When geologists date a rock that is found in the same layer, or strata, of the earth as a human artifact, they can help archaeologists determine how old the artifact is by analyzing and comparing Reveal the Story Geologists and archaeologists work together to reveal the story of ancient civilizations. Archaeologists look for the where and what, and geologists determine the when. Together, they can tell us who these civilizations were and how they lived.

Study History It is important for us to study the history of our ancient ancestors, so we have a full picture of how we got to where we are today. Think of it like some television shows. If you miss the first few episodes, it is difficult to make sense of the rest of the season. History is the same way. Understanding our early episodes [images of ancient cultures, old locomotive train, portrait of a modern family] gives us the context and knowledge to understand where we are now and make sense of where we are going. In addition, being able to construct a sequence of events in chronological order enables science to know how long it took for people to develop in particular areas. The fewer chapters missing, the more an understanding of who we are comes into focus. Sometimes, the geologist can determine why a society died out by finding layers in rocks that indicate widespread flooding, drought, or volcanoes. ANTHROPOLOGY, ETYMOLOGY, AND LINGUISTICS Anthropology, Etymology and, Linguistics There are three other types of historians that can help us understand the culture of the people we study: anthropologists, etymologists, and linguists. Anthropology

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Example: How easily can you recognize patterns? Take for example the following string of numbers with some numbers missing. What pattern do they represent? 1, 3, ___, 15, ___, ___, 127 Did you figure out the pattern? Try again with the blanks filled in. 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, 63, 127 Now did you figure out the pattern? Each number is multiplied by 2 and then 1 is added. LET'S REVIEW! Field of Study Description Scientific Methods Relevance to History Archaeology the study of life in early human societies looks for artifacts, examines remains, performs excavation work provides information about ancient human societies Anthropology the study of humans performs fieldwork among makes historical

different cultures comparisons between cultures Etymology the study of word origins traces the form and meaning of words finds out where words came from Geology the study of the earth examines rock strata places life in chronological order Linguistics the study of human language looks for similarities between words in different cultures gives meaning to ancient words Although each of these disciplines, taken alone, fulfills an important role in our understanding of the past, they all must work together in order for us to unearth the secrets ancient societies possess. A conscientious historian will collect the opinions of experts from these various fields—along with others—and use them to paint a picture of our past. Each one will collect, classify, analyze, and interpret the data they find and together reach a conclusion as to its meaning. Match the vocabulary term with its meaning. 1 . anthropology the study of humans 2 . archaeology the study of human language 3 . artifacts the collecting, classifying, analyzing, and interpreting of data 4 . etymology the study of the origins of words 5 . historical method objects made by people that are later unearthed 6 . linguistics the processes and procedures by which we acquire information 7 scientific the study of the lives of early human communities 1 6 5 4 3 7 2

. method through the examination of the remains An archaeologist studies _____. the earth, rock forms, and strata the origins of words the lives of early communities by examining artifacts the development of language early human culture and development compared to the present day A geologist studies _____. the earth, rock forms, and strata the origins of words the lives of early communities by examining artifacts the development of language early human culture and development compared to the present day What makes historians unique? Select all correct responses. Historians present the past to the present to learn from mistakes and successes. Historians write, as accurately as possible, stories of past people, places, and events. Historians access information from 3 different sources: geology, linguistics, and archaeology. Historians want to discover, study, and interpret new findings. Historians use the historic method to draw conclusions of history and how it affects us. To properly study the human race's past, all five types of historians should be used.

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True False //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// STUDY METHODS OF HISTORY Noah Webster, in his 1828 dictionary, defined history as "a narrative of events in the order in which they happened, with their causes and effects." History is more than a series of events. It is a record of events. It is also an attempt to understand these events so that we can know what people did and why. It is more than just a list of facts that make history alive. Think of this in terms of buying your first car. You want the best car for the best price, since you have a very limited budget. You begin by collecting information about a number of different cars, new and used. You research details of their prices, reliability as they get older, safety features such as crash rating, gas mileage, and the costs to insure them. After you have gathered all that information, you classify it into specific categories. You then analyze the data you accumulated and come to a conclusion about what vehicle best fits your needs in the price range you can afford. Historians will also use a system of methods to provide an accurate story of people and events from the past. They spend hours searching through the written material of past societies for clues about previous ways of life. They read, research, and write about the history of the human race and the interactions between people. OBJECTIVES  Identify the sources historians use to gather information about past events.  List the skills necessary to write about the information you have collected.  Understand how your perspective can influence what you write and how you report events.  Understand how quantitative research data and qualitative research can be integrated.

VOCABULARY historical method the series of steps historians use in their study of history primary source a document that was produced during the same time period as the historical su secondary source a document produced some time after the historical subject of study took place HISTORICAL CLUES You can think of the record of events as footprints. Imagine finding a set of sticky, fruit- punch footprints in the kitchen. By carefully looking at them, you can learn quite a bit about what happened. The fruit punch is not yet dry, so you can tell that they are recent. They are small, so you can guess that a very small person, probably a child, left the footprints. They first lead to the cookie jar, so you assume that the person leaving them wanted some cookies. They then lead to the refrigerator. Some fruit-punch handprints tell you that the refrigerator door was opened. They then lead to the dining room, where they disappear into the carpet. The footprints can answer the questions of when (recently), where (the kitchen, cookie jar, refrigerator), and who (a child). They can even tell you the order of events. Other questions are left unanswered. For example, you don't know why. Was the child hungry of ored? Was the child getting the cookies for himself or someone else? What was the significance of getting the cookies? What, exactly, happened at the refrigerator? It is the job of the historian to turn the footprints into a meaningful story that can provide the answer to most or all of these questions. Historians attempt to answer the who, what, when, where, and why questions of history. They use a variety of methods in their research of history. There are general steps that most historians agree upon and use in their study. These steps are known as the historical method . The following is a list of common steps used in this method.

 Collection of data  Classification of data  Analysis of data  Interpretation of data  Synthesis of data  Reporting conclusions Take a brief look at each of these steps. COLLECTION OF DATA Collection of Data Historians do not just tell the story of human culture, they discover it. Historians use evidence to help them understand what happened, when it happened, and to whom. Once they have this data, they can start to understand why and how to create a complete story. But what kind of evidence do historians look for? There are two categories of sources historians depend on for information: primary sources and secondary sources. The word "primary" means first or original. So, a primary source is an original document or artifact that comes from the period of time being studied. [An old script and pottery artifacts] Someone from that time period actually wrote, created, or used the thing the historian is studying. Examples of primary sources are diaries, letters, oral histories, eyewitness accounts, and artifacts like tools, clothes, and toys. Primary sources are important, because they provide raw materials that can be analyzed and interpreted. So, if primary means first or original, then secondary must mean second, right? Well, almost. A secondary source is something someone wrote or said about a primary source or another secondary source. Examples of secondary sources are history books, reports, and lectures. Secondary sources are important because they analyze and interpret primary sources. Historians cannot be experts in everything, so sometimes they need to look at what an expert said about a primary source to really be able to understand its significance. Let us look at an example of how primary and secondary sources could be used to understand an important time in history. For example, the conflict between England's

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king and his feudal barons in the thirteenth century. A very important primary source document for this time period is the Magna Carta. It is a primary source because it was written in 1215, and had a direct impact on the people being studied. A secondary source you might consult to better understand the Magna Carta is a book called "The Reign of King John," written by Sidney Pointer in 1950. This book was written well after the thirteenth century and gives Painter's interpretation of the events and primary sources of the time, like the Magna Carta. Although historians prefer to have a good supply of primary sources, both types of sources are necessary in historical study. The historian gathers evidence from whatever sources the historian can. Archaeological ruins, archives, museums, and libraries are some of the best sources of material. Libraries tend to have more secondary sources; archives, museums, and ancient ruins usually contain primary source material. Four different types of evidence are:  Material remains, such as bones, tools, weapons, and pottery  Oral traditions, such as myths, legends, and songs  Pictorial data, such as drawings and maps  Written records, such as old manuscripts, treaties, diaries, books, magazines, and newspapers The most important tool used by the historian is data. After data is collected, the historian categorizes it. In general, there are two main categories used to classify data: archaeological remains and written records. Archaeological remains might be grouped into tools, weapons, jewelry, and clothing, for example. Written records can include maps, legal documents, and stories. ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA Imagine it's the first day of school, and a friend comes to you saying she saw your boyfriend talking to a very pretty new girl. Maybe your blood starts to boil, but before you get upset about the episode and make a fool of yourself, you decide to investigate the situation thoroughly. It's a good thing, too; she turns out to be his cousin who has just moved here.

This is the life of a historian. The historian reads information about the past, but, before jumping to the wrong conclusion, thoroughly researches every possible detail. Analyzing and Interpreting Data There are two ways in which a historian analyzes a historical document external criticism and internal criticism. The first thing historians must determine is how reliable the source is how reliable the source is. This is done through a process called external criticism. External criticism answers questions like: Who wrote this source? When was it written? Where was it written? Is it an original or a copy? These are questions about the external conditions of the creation of the source - its historical context [External Conditions = historical context]. Answering these questions is important, because the historian may discover that the author was a well-known forger; or, that a significant mistake was made when a document was being hand-copied from the original. Perhaps a scroll that seems to be from Ancient Egypt is actually written on paper that is only one hundred and fifty years old. After the authenticity of the source has been established by external criticism, it is time to examine its contents. The interpretation of the actual contents of the source is called internal criticism. Internal criticism has two elements: determining what the author meant, his intention, and then determining the accuracy of what he or she says. To determine what the author meant, the historian has to study the language. Some words may have had different meanings in the time and place the document was written. Some written accounts are in languages that do not even exist anymore. To determine the accuracy of what the author wrote, the historian must figure out if the author had any reason to be biased. [Was the author biased?] Was he an official court historian who could not speak badly of the king? Was he a member of a particular religion that might influence his perspective? This is the trickiest part of researching a historical document. Trying to determine a person's motive over a period of hundreds, or even thousands, of years is a challenging and time-consuming task. Once the author's bias or objectivity is established, the historian next attempts to determine if there are any errors or omissions in the account. The best way to do that is to consult other reliable evidence that covers the same event or subject matter. History has been misdirected through the centuries

by unreliable evidence such as forged documents, inaccurate copies, mutilated fragments, and human error. As historians search and find more data, the amount of false evidence is reduced, and a more accurate story can be told. That is why a history book about Ancient Egypt from one hundred years ago may be different than one from ten years ago. Ancient Egypt did not change, but our understanding of it did! SYNTHESIS AND REPORTING OF DATA Historians must have certain qualities of character. Of primary importance is the quality of accuracy. The historian must be patient, determined, moral, and honest. If the historian is not accurate, that person's writing cannot be relied upon. Because all of the facts can never be discovered, the historian must re-create some events that person believes probably happened. In the example presented earlier about purchasing a car, you might hear from four different people that four different makes of automobiles are the best ones to buy. These opinions are biased for one reason or another. The historian, like you, has to be careful not to fall into this sort of trap. This very delicate process requires a great deal of work. The historian must try to avoid writing from a prejudiced viewpoint and must attempt as much as possible to present the facts as they happened. However, the more complex the events studied and the wider the distance in time and place from the present, the greater the demands made upon the historian's judgment. QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS Two more ways that historians research and understand data is through qualitative and quantitative analysis. What is qualitative analysis? It is the study of why people behave the way they do, and how people make sense or meaning of their environments. This method answers the "how" and "why" questions. It often takes into account storytelling, reading letters, or personal accounts; or, in the case of preliterate societies, it looks at religious symbolism and architecture to try to understand how people understood their world.

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Take, for example, the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamen. As historians look at the artifacts or items buried with him, they can begin to understand what the important things were to the royal families of the time. His burial mask was adorned with a serpent. Clearly, this symbolized something important, based on its placement in such a prominent location. What does this say about the culture, then? It give an understanding of what the society thought was important, since the rulers often dictated how the people thought. Qualitative research generally follows the same pattern: 1. Formulate an idea 2. Formulate a plan 3. Gather data 4. Analyze this data 5. Analyze the source of the data So, what is quantitative research? Simply put, it is historical data based on numbers. The primary source of analysis and interpretation is based on things historians can count. For example, if a historian learns that people in a small French medieval village died of the plague, that is useful information. But, if that historian discovered that 98 of 105 people in that village died of the plague, then the historian can more clearly see how the plague impacted rural medieval life.

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Say there was a study about Nordic mercenaries who took over huge parts of France, including the village above, during the same era. Another historian writes a paper arguing that the success of the mercenaries was due to their superior fighting power. However, a savvy historian would look at the quantitative study of the plague deaths in the region and conclude that it doesn't take a significant amount of fighting to take over a village that has decimated by the plague and left with a population of just seven people. This is a good example of how quantitative analysis can be integrated into qualitative analysis to come up with a more complete view of history. Quantitative studies include a variety of methods, from basic mathematical techniques to highly sophisticated statistical procedures and mathematical model-building. It all depends on what you are looking at and how much in-depth analysis you need to get enough data to form a reliable conclusion. Usually, this includes the use of large amounts of data to gain a big picture. Quantitative analysis often answers the what, where, and when questions. LET'S REVIEW! Solving a mystery can be a lot of fun. It is especially meaningful when the mystery helps to answer how history has unfolded. The illustrations in this lesson can be used in everyday life. Remember to collect and classify, analyze and interpret, and synthesize and report accurately. Both qualitative and quantitative research serves a specific purpose. These are the six simple steps for successful living, if you wish to study history. History is more than a series of events. It is a of events. Historians attempt to answer the , , , , and questions of history. A firsthand report or eyewitness account is an example of what type of data source? primary secondary record w ho w hat w hen w here w hy

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oral histories Why are secondary sources important to the study of history? These sources include bones and weapons. These sources provide information written by other authors. Museums usually contain the majority of these sources. An example of data that a historian would use is _____. weather data pictorial data mineral data What process has the historian followed when testing the accuracy of the source against other facts and outside data? external criticism interpretation synthesis Historians have a difficult task, if not all facts have been discovered yet, with doing what? not publish the findings until all evidence and facts are discovered make up missing pieces of information depending on the bias of the writer attempt to re-create a historic event to find what probably happened write only the true evidence from as many perspectives as possible Which difficult position might historians find themselves in? wanting to disguise the truth they have uncovered

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wanting to add their own perspective or bias to the writing wanting to embellish stories and events wanting to omit boring passages of historic records Click here to view an actual (partial) record of passengers who arrived at the Port of New York during the Irish Famine, created in 1977-1989. It includes passengers from 1846 to 1849. Which of the following integrates quantitative analysis into qualitative analysis, based on the above record of passengers? identifying why mothers believed it was worth the risk to travel to America with late- term pregnancies identifying potential family groupings that believed America offered them more hope of a future for their children than Ireland did understanding how many single young men traveled to America in hope of a better life understanding how many young children traveled onboard without proper supervision Click here to view an actual (partial) record of passengers who arrived at the Port of New York during the Irish Famine, created in 1977-1989. It includes passengers from 1846 to 1849. Using the above document, develop a question for research that integrates quantitative analysis with qualitative analysis. Once you have written your question, explain how you plan to integrate quantitative analysis into qualitative analysis. Then, write a short answer to your question (this will likely be fictitious) and explain your reasoning. WRITER how many people arrived at Port of New York ? 604,596 what Record File include? name, age, destination, passenger arrival date, occupation, literacy, native country, transit status.

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///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// PERSPECTIVES OF HISTORY You are sitting at home watching a tense basketball game on television. Thousands of people are screaming at the top of their lungs as a player from your home team dribbles up the court. There are only four seconds left, and the home team is down by two. The guard dishes to the center, breaking across the middle. He takes the pass, spins once, and puts up a shot. A defender appears to be draped all over him as the ball hangs in the air forever. The horn sounds, drowning out the referee's whistle. Everyone rises to their feet, their eyes following the trajectory of the spinning ball. A deafening roar explodes as the ball settles into the net. Yes! You instantly see the official has blown his whistle, and you know the player will have a chance to win the game with a free throw. Then, to your horror, you realize he has the blown the whistle against the shooter. It's an offensive foul. The home team loses! A loud chorus of boos and disbelief can be heard all around you. "How could the officials miss that call? What about the foul?" Obviously the referee wasn't seeing the same game you were—or was he? OBJECTIVES  Identify the common elements in a historical event.  Examine perspective and bias in historical accounts.  Recognize ways to avoid bias and gain a broader view of historical events. FIVE ELEMENTS OF HISTORIC EVENTS AND. . . ONE MORE Have you ever thought of how history becomes history? What are some of the elements that you think make a given event historic? Is it the date, or maybe the people involved? Stop reading for a minute and think about the basketball scenario you just read. Close your eyes and picture the entire string of events as it might have happened. Now, answer the following questions:  Who? What individuals were involved?  When? What was the specific time when the shot went up?  Where? Where was the shooter? The defender? The ref? Where were you?

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 What? What happened? Did the ball go in? Who got the foul?  Why? Why didn't the shot count? Why was an offensive foul called instead of defensive? This is often complicated and was most likely a difficult question for you to answer. To find the answer to the question "why," we need a story. The list above shows the common elements of most historical events. The basketball story involves a change, advance, or conflict in the areas listed. Historical events will usually affect more than one of these areas. Elements of Historic Events Have you ever wondered what makes a historical event, something that happened in the past, historic, or significant? A historic event usually involves a change or conflict that affects more than just the people directly involved [Text: Change or Conflict]. Think about the basketball scenario you just read. If you recall, the scenario asked you to imagine being a basketball fan who witnessed your favorite team lose because of a bad call made by a referee. If that basketball game was a playoff game, or maybe a star player's last hurrah, it might be considered historic. In addition to the facts of an event, there is another element of historic events that must be considered: the historian. The person telling the story has a big impact on how future readers perceive the event. Using the basketball story, think about where you might have learned about the play. Was it from a commentator? A disgruntled coach shortly after the game was over? On the Internet the next day? Were you an eyewitness? How might the source affect your understanding of the event? Let us assume you were an eyewitness. You are the historian in this case, recording what you saw. Would the fact that you are a fan of the losing team affect your perception of the game? You replay the "play" in your mind over and over again. It is obvious the officials were playing favorites. They had been making bad calls all night. You never did trust referees anyhow. You are clearly biased, and that will affect the way you record the event, and subsequently, the way future readers perceive it. What do you think might bias a historian? Political and religious views? Social class? Cultural and ethnic background? Every historian has a perspective, or bias, from which he or she views events. [Text: Perspectives = Bias with examples under of political views, religious views, social class, culture, ethnicity] That bias affects the telling of the story to some extent. The job of

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future historians reading those accounts is to determine the source and extent of that bias. Back to the game. That evening, you see the replay from the official's line of sight. Just as the shooter prepared to shoot, he pushed the defender away with his forearm in order to get clear. In the foreground, you see the official's arm beginning to go up, calling the foul even before the shot was released. Good call after all. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Historians are fairly sure of names, events, and dates throughout history. However, they may disagree on what all those things mean. They might have two different versions of any one event. Take a look at differing versions of an actual historical event: On October 16, 1859, a man named John Brown [pictured at right] and a group of his followers captured a weapons store house at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. On November 2 of the same year, John Brown was convicted on charges of murder, treason, and starting a slave uprising. On December 2, he was hung. Almost all historians agree on these facts. As you can see, these facts do not tell us very much. Telling the facts of a historical event is very important, but often the facts do not tell the whole story. Why is this important? What does it mean? Did John Brown really incite a slave insurrection? Did he deserve hanging? These questions are more complicated. The answers to these questions are answered in what is called a narrative or the story of a historical event. Did you know? John Brown was passionately opposed to slavery. In 1859, he and about twenty followers decided to seize the United States Arsenal at Harper's Ferry in Virginia. They planned to use the weapons from the arsenal to arm slaves, who would then be encouraged to fight for their freedom. The seizure was initially successful, but within less than two days, all those involved in the act were either killed or captured. Brown was tried for treason and hanged, but his action caused the rift between the pro- slavery forces and the abolitionists to widen still further. Scholars agree that the raid was a major contributing factor leading to the outbreak of the Civil War. Although historians find it easier to agree on the facts, they often do not agree on the answers to the later questions or the narrative. These answers are difficult to prove.

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Historical Perspectives The narratives describing John Brown's trial vary greatly depending on where they were published. [A drawing of John Brown being held captive] Many newspapers in the North portrayed him as a martyr and sympathized with his cause. In the South, he was more likely to be seen as a criminal and a traitor. Let us look at two narratives describing Brown's execution. The first is from The New York Tribune on December 5, 1859: "On leaving the Jail, John Brown had on his face an expression of calmness and serenity, characteristic of the patriot who is about to die with a living consciousness that he is laying his life down for the good of his fellow creatures. As he stepped out of door, a black woman, with her little child in her arms, stood near his way. The two were of the despised race for whose emancipation and elevation to the dignity of children of God he was about to lay down his life. He stopped for a moment in his course, stooped over, and with the tenderness of one whose love is as broad as the brotherhood of man, kissed [the child] affectionately." You can tell by the language being used that the writer of this report was biased in favor of John Brown. Although this paragraph contains bias, it is still useful to us. It is proof that at least some people viewed him as a hero who died for what he believed in, that slavery was wrong. Now let us look at another narrative perspective from the Cincinnati Enquirer. "We rejoice that old Brown has been hung. He was not only a murderer of innocent persons, but he attempted one of the greatest crimes against society-the stirring up of a servile and civil war. He has paid the penalty for his crimes, and we hope his fate may be a warning to all who might have felt inclined to imitate his aggressive conduct." This writer was biased in the other direction and his writing tells us that some people believed John Brown was a criminal who deserved his fate. Both sides agreed on the fact that Brown had tried to start a revolt that would end slavery. But, they disagreed on whether that made him a hero or a criminal. Both articles relate the same factual event: John Brown was hung, but the way they present the facts reflects the bias of the writers. The disagreement fueled Southern anger at the North and Northern anger at the South. The event may have been an important precursor to the Civil War.

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That is history. Most historians try to be objective. However, it is very hard to present a narrative without some bias. Remember, when studying history, do not be afraid to ask questions and check other sources. In conclusion, why is it important to study history? Why does it matter? How does the past affect the future? These are some of the questions explored in this lesson. Why do these questions matter? After all, have we not just examined an event that happened in the past? Have you ever thought to yourself, "History is boring"? If so, maybe it is because you have never taken time to think about these types of questions. Find the story behind the facts, and you make studying history an adventure. The facts of the event are the fading footprints of history. Add perspective, bias, cause, and effect to history and all of a sudden, history comes alive! LET'S REVIEW! Let us review the main points of the lesson on historical perspectives.  Who, what, when, where and why are the common elements in a historical event.  Every historian has a perspective or bias from which he views an event. Historians' political and religious views, along with their upbringing, can affect their points of view.  Historians try to be objective but their view of an event can show bias. To avoid bias, ask as many questions as possible and check other sources to gain a broader view of each event. Choose the best answer to complete this sentence: The illustration of the basketball game shows _____. that one event can be viewed from many perspectives that no one knows what happens but those personally involved all events have only one actual interpretation

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consequences of events are to be individually interpreted Based on the information in this lesson, how is history like the basketball game? Select all that apply. It is hard to determine how events happen. Historians use clues to piece together events. It is easy to tell why events happen. Which of the following statements would best describe the common elements of most historical events? Common elements involve change, advance, or conflict. Historians ignore common elements in recording history. Historical events do not have common elements. How does the historian affect history? Historians do not include why events happen. Historians rarely affect history when recording the events. The bias of historians will affect the way they record events. How would an historian best respond to the comment, "History is simply a series of events in chronological order." True, with fascinating information of who, what, where, why, and how to explain it well. True, with fascinating information of who, whay, where, why, and possibly some bias and perspective of the writer that we can explore. True, but you are leaving out the best part: "Why? True, and we are so lucky to have this many events to learn about and not make their same mistakes.

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How do the Five Elements of Historic Events work together for viewing history? By remembering the 5 W's, a historian can connect information of an event. Simply asking Who and Where gives enough information for an historian. Asking WHY? is enough information for a student of history. No one will ever know the reasons events occur. When studying history, asking questions and checking other sources will improve one's perspective. What other awareness is necessary? To realize all writers and reporters have some bias of culture, geography, economics, or politics. To understand all perspectives are always correct. To acknowledge primary documents are without bias. To understand the longer a document is, the more accurate it is. /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// Q 9. Quiz: Introduction to History UCS Adult Ed World History A – THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN SOCIETY Select all that apply. History is the recorded story of the interaction between _____, ____ and ____. ideas patterns future events environment

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people Which of the following is NOT a primary source? artifacts diaries eyewitness accounts recent book about the Civil War A linguist studies _____. the earth, rock forms, and strata the origins of words the lives of early communities by studying artifacts the development of language early human culture and development compared to the present day People who discover, study, interpret, and write history are called _____. hieroglyphs historians reporters revisionists Match the vocabulary term with its meaning. 1 . civilization collecting, classifying, analyzing, and interpreting data 2 . society a group of people with common practices, activities, and interests 3 culture a highly developed society 4 2 1

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. 4 . historical Method a document produced some time aftern the historical event 5 . anthropology a document that was produced during the same time period as the historical event 6 . primary Source all the knowledge and values shared by a society 7 . secondary Source the study of humans Select all that apply. Historians must have certain qualities of character, such as _____. impatience accuracy honesty bias Historians are concerned with accuracy of their writings and readings but are also aware of inability of authors to know every cause and consequence of every story. biases, perspectives, beliefs, and a variety of other differences. history being told by one person at a time no one being totally accurate, as hard as we try. Who, what, when, where, and why are elements of _____. nature a long novel historic events 7 6 3 5

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Select all that apply. What things can cause a person to be biased? religious views political views time of day upbringing country lived in Select all that apply. Three good reasons for studying history are _____. to memorize times, dates, and famous people to reveal past contributions of civilizations to learn about past successes and failures to connect the past to the present to recognize patterns An anthropologist studies _____. the earth, rock forms, and strata the origins of words the lives of early communities by studying artifacts the development of language early human culture and development compared to the present day Select all that apply. Which of the following are steps in the historical method?

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analysis reporting conclusions making theories classifying data reading what others say interpreting information Why is external criticism so important when it comes to analyzing data? WRITER External criticism is important because is a tool used by historians and exegeles to deterimine the validity of a document especially a document with some sort of historical significance. A secondary source might be _____. oral histories drawings and maps letters a documentary made ten years later Historians seek to interpret historic sites, artifacts, written records, and verbal histories without adding their own what? Ideas of the historic background Theory they hope to prove Biases of interpretation Narrative of the course of events Quantitative analysis includes _____.

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meaning making statistics storytelling asking "why" the "what" question ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// RECONSTRUCTING EARLY HOMINID DEVELOPMENT "Toilets stopped up? Call 2EZ Plumber," shouts an ad on the radio. You give the place a call, and it sends out an expert. He walks into your house carrying a jackhammer, a sledgehammer, and a small amount of C4. "What are those for?" you ask nervously. "They're for unclogging the pipes." Now, it should be obvious that this guy isn't a real plumber. He does not have the tools necessary to fix the problem. In like fashion, a respected archaeologist would not excavate a site using the same tools. Both professions require skill and an understanding of what is needed to do the task. You may know the tools necessary to do a great job of fixing a leak or unclogging a drain, but, have you ever wondered how an archaeologist finds all of those ancient goodies? In this lesson, you'll study some of the more contemporary techniques used by archaeologists, geologists, and anthropologists as they uncover the history of the world. You will also learn what they look for as excavation sites are dug. OBJECTIVES  Describe the two steps of the archaeological process.  Explain how geologists reconstruct the past through the study of rocks.  Recall the comparative method of anthropology.

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 Understand the role economic stability had on the advancement of early political systems. VOCABULARY anthropology the study of the human race artifacts objects made by humans that are unearthed by archaeologists chronological order an arrangement of events in the order in which the events took place contemporary concerning the present time geology the study of the earth, especially its rock forms method an orderly procedure or process; the regular manner of doing anything prehistory time prior to the use of written records scientific method the processes and procedures by which we acquire information seriation the procedure of developing a chronology of arranging remains at a site that pro pattern of development stratigraphy the branch of geology that studies the various layers of rock and soil ARCHAEOLOGY It is an easy process to find out what happened on this date ten years ago. There are plenty of Internet sites dedicated to providing this kind of information. Even if you were searching for events of one hundred years ago, you would not find it all that difficult. But what about events of five thousand years ago, before writing had been developed? How would you know how people lived and died? You would have to find the remains of an ancient culture and study them. In general, archaeologists do just that. They study the

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lives of prehistoric human communities through the examination of their material remains. Archeology The adventures of real-life archaeologists may not be quite as glamorous as they are in the movies, but archaeologists do have a passion for discovering hidden truths about societies and cultures [A group of archeologists digging with machines at an excavation site]. Using various scientific methods, or specialized procedures that are unique to their field of study, they strive to determine the history of a given site. Two of these specialized methods are the use of surveys and excavations [An archeologist surveying a site with an instrument and someone looking at an artifact being dug up at a site]. When archaeologists survey a site, they select a location that has not been researched before, take soil samples, and uncover features of interest. They may take aerial photographs of the area, and use metal detectors to find metal objects. When archaeologists excavate, they dig for fossils and artifacts, both horizontally and vertically around objects. They attempt to determine the relative age of artifacts, and clean and study them for clues about the past. Archaeologists also preserve the artifacts. Artifacts can usually be fairly easily associated with one of three broad time periods, or ages: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, or the Iron Age. Stone, Bronze, and Iron refer to the time periods when these materials were first used to make tools. These ages are a part of prehistory, the time when written records were not available. Archaeologists compare similar artifacts from different regions of the world to establish an accurate timeframe. However, the dates in each of these periods will vary for different parts of the world, because of differences in the rate of development in technology and social organization. Sometimes, a more accurate dating method is required. When archaeologists want to know a more exact date for an artifact, they can use carbon dating to date fossils found in the same layer as the artifact [A scientist in a laboratory demonstrating carbon dating]. ARCHAEOLOGY It is an easy process to find out what happened on this date ten years ago. There are plenty of Internet sites dedicated to providing this kind of information. Even if you were searching for events of one hundred years ago, you would not find it all that difficult. But

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what about events of five thousand years ago, before writing had been developed? How would you know how people lived and died? You would have to find the remains of an ancient culture and study them. In general, archaeologists do just that. They study the lives of prehistoric human communities through the examination of their material remains. Archeology The adventures of real-life archaeologists may not be quite as glamorous as they are in the movies, but archaeologists do have a passion for discovering hidden truths about societies and cultures [A group of archeologists digging with machines at an excavation site]. Using various scientific methods, or specialized procedures that are unique to their field of study, they strive to determine the history of a given site. Two of these specialized methods are the use of surveys and excavations [An archeologist surveying a site with an instrument and someone looking at an artifact being dug up at a site]. When archaeologists survey a site, they select a location that has not been researched before, take soil samples, and uncover features of interest. They may take aerial photographs of the area, and use metal detectors to find metal objects. When archaeologists excavate, they dig for fossils and artifacts, both horizontally and vertically around objects. They attempt to determine the relative age of artifacts, and clean and study them for clues about the past. Archaeologists also preserve the artifacts. Artifacts can usually be fairly easily associated with one of three broad time periods, or ages: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, or the Iron Age. Stone, Bronze, and Iron refer to the time periods when these materials were first used to make tools. These ages are a part of prehistory, the time when written records were not available. Archaeologists compare similar artifacts from different regions of the world to establish an accurate timeframe. However, the dates in each of these periods will vary for different parts of the world, because of differences in the rate of development in technology and social organization. Sometimes, a more accurate dating method is required. When archaeologists want to know a more exact date for an artifact, they can use carbon dating to date fossils found in the same layer as the artifact [A scientist in a laboratory demonstrating carbon dating].

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GEOLOGY How does the geologist help to reconstruct the earth's history by dating the age of rocks and fossils? Geological and archaeological dating relies on two types of dating methods : absolute dating and relative dating. If you wanted to know how many years ago an event took place, you would use the absolute dating method. Absolute dating uses a number of different methods, including the study of tree-ring patterns, the coral growth cycles, the changes in the magnetic field of the earth, and radiometric dating, such as potassium argon and radiocarbon/C-14. Of these, radioactivity is the most commonly used method. This method relies on measuring the decay of naturally occurring radioactive elements. Geologists attempt to date early humans and cultures by measuring the remaining amounts of carbon-14, potassium, thorium, and uranium found in organic materials. The older the materials, the lower the amounts of these elements are. Relative Dating The relative dating method is used when an historian wants to know the order in which events happened, but does not need to know the exact dates. Relative dating helps to determine chronological order; that is, the order or sequence in which events took place. Historians use a variety of methods to arrive at an approximate date for an artifact: the type of artifact, the geographic location, the geological location, and the similarity it shares with other artifacts found at a site. The most common methods in relative dating are stratigraphy and seriation. The earth's surface consists of various layers of rock and soil, like rows of concrete block in a wall [layers, colors and textures of a rock formation from the inside]. These layers are called strata. [A woman at a rock site examining the rock layers that has been exposed] Stratigraphy is the branch of geology that studies the various layers of rock and soil. Geologists can determine an approximate date for an artifact by studying the strata in which it was found, and looking at how far apart artifacts or tools are from each other in various strata. Artifacts found in lower layers of strata are generally older than those found in strata near the top. [Lower Strata = Older Artifact] As an example, consider the story of Heinrich Schliemann, a wealthy amateur archaeologist who discovered the ancient city of Troy. As he dug, he found not only one layer of the city,

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but rather, nine layers stacked one on top of another. Stratigraphy was used to help date the history of Troy. Another way historians determine relative age is a method called seriation. Seriation helps to determine sequences of events at an excavated site. With this method, historians compare the artifacts they find at a site to each other, and try to determine a pattern of development and use. As tools or artifacts are slowly introduced into a society, there is a gradual increase in use, which eventually declines, and then disappears. By paying close attention to the number, location, and strata of the artifacts and tools found at a site, historians can figure out where on this curve a particular artifact falls, and therefore determine a relative date Today, the research gained by both the archaeologist and geologist can be analyzed using computers. Scientists can make virtual analyses from the smallest pieces of artifacts . From this, computers provide visual reconstructions and representations of the whole artifact. Computer- generated visualizations of fossils and artifacts have assisted scientists in their analysis and our understanding of the past. ANTHROPOLOGY The definition of anthropology is the study of humans. Anthropologists are scientists who study people and all their activities—their "way of life." Their goal is to discover the regularities or similarities in human customs that exist among various groups. Knowing how groups are similar, the anthropologist can generalize about human behavior. At the beginning of this century, Arnold van Gennep noted that birth, puberty, marriage, and death are accompanied by ceremonies in all groups. Although the details of this cultural regularity may differ from one group to another, the significance is constant. The social passing of a person from one stage in life to the next is a cultural regularity. Anthropologists call such ceremonies rites of passage . In addition to rites of passage, anthropologists have found many other elements common to all social groups. These widespread elements are known as cultural universals . These and other elements provide the basic material for anthropological analysis. The main concern in the study of cultural universals would be to explain why people who are so scattered from one another do the same kinds of things. For example, why do all

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societies have cooperative labor, kin groups, and language? Are these behaviors inherited or learned? Where did they originate? Why do they appear in isolated groups? In addition, anthropologists want to explain the differences among the details of these universals. For example, why do housing style, size, and material differ among groups? Why didn't all people get their food in the same way? The goal of anthropology is to answer questions such as these. Anthropologists use the comparative method to study people in their cultural variety. The comparative method is the procedure of comparing cultural similarities as well as differences among various societies. This procedure helps anthropologists find patterns in culture. The comparative method also gives an anthropologist a worldwide background for understanding any part of a society's culture; that is, the information anthropologists have gotten by studying many societies will enable them to understand something about one particular society. Anthropology is holistic in obtaining cultural information used for comparison. It is not limited to the study of any single part of a society's culture. The anthropologist tries to understand every aspect of a particular culture. Take, for example, the Neolithic Revolution. In about 10,000 BC, humans began to settle in communities as a result of a move from hunting and gathering to farming. Anthropologists look not only at the kinds of communities formed during this period, but at things like the food people grew, the houses they lived in, and the way they structured their communities. As more food was grown to sustain the community, not all community members needed to grow food. This increase in economic stability allowed for the rise of the craftsman, priest, and warrior classes. It also saw the rise of political structures within a community and the need for political leadership. This often led to the development of a highly civilized political system. So, you could say that anthropologists have found that planting crops led to politicians; imagine that! Anthropology is both historically and geographically comprehensive. Both simple and complex societies are examined. Ancient societies yield cultural information about themselves from the literature of their periods and from their material remains.

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LET'S REVIEW! In this lesson, we have taken a close look at the methods of study and how conclusions can be drawn about early human communities. These methods are also involved in the construction of the historical narrative. Before continuing on to the problem set below, take some time to review the following main ideas: Archaeology  In general, archaeology is the study of the lives of prehistoric human communities through the examination of their material remains.  Archaeologists analyze, interpret, represent, and preserve evidence. They rely mainly on seven types of data, with fossils and artifacts being the most important.  Survey and excavation are the two main methods of investigation.  Dating of artifacts is done by a three-age system, based on the development of tools and technology. Geology  Geology is the scientific field dedicated to the study of the earth.  Along with archaeologists, geologists use absolute and relative dating systems.  Absolute dating attempts to fix an exact date for an event. Methods used include tree-ring patterns, coral growth cycle, Earth's magnetic field, and, most commonly, radioactivity.  Relative dating attempts to find a chronological order or sequence of events. Methods for dating are stratigraphy , seriation , and geologic-climatic.  Computer technology aids in analysis and representation of artifacts. Anthropology  Anthropology is the study of humans.  Anthropologists study cultural universals to determine ways people are similar.  Anthropologists use the comparative method to study cultural similarities.  Anthropology is both holistic and comprehensive in study. Match the vocabulary word with its meaning.

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1 . anthropology the study of the human race 2 . method the procedure of developing a chronology of arranging remains at a site that produces a consistent pattern 3 . prehistory an orderly process or procedure 4 . scientific method time prior to the use of written records 5 . seriation the branch of geology that studies the various layers of rock and soil 6 . stratigraphy the procedures and processes by which we acquire information The dating of artifacts is done by a _____-age system based on the development of tools and technology. three four five Absolute dating can be determined by which of the following. Select all that apply. tree-ring patterns Earth's magnetic field a historian's journal coral growth cycle radioactivity photo comparison Relative dating helps to determine . 1 5 2 3 6 4 chronological order

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How are anthropologists able to make generalizations about human behavior? studying isolated groups of people researching the archaeological debris of different societies knowing the regularities in human custom What best describes a rite of passage? a ceremony that marks passing stages in life a generalization of how people live a custom that historians study to determine the history of a people What BEST defines anthropology? study of past cultures study of people study of differences between people Which of the following are rites of passage, according to Arnold van Gennep? Select all that apply. marriage high-school graduation puberty death speech birth What did economic stability lead to in the Neolithic Revolution? the advent of fire ceremonies and rites

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political systems planting crops /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// RECONSTRUCTING EARLY HOMINID DEVELOPMENT "Toilets stopped up? Call 2EZ Plumber," shouts an ad on the radio. You give the place a call, and it sends out an expert. He walks into your house carrying a jackhammer, a sledgehammer, and a small amount of C4. "What are those for?" you ask nervously. "They're for unclogging the pipes." Now, it should be obvious that this guy isn't a real plumber. He does not have the tools necessary to fix the problem. In like fashion, a respected archaeologist would not excavate a site using the same tools. Both professions require skill and an understanding of what is needed to do the task. You may know the tools necessary to do a great job of fixing a leak or unclogging a drain, but, have you ever wondered how an archaeologist finds all of those ancient goodies? In this lesson, you'll study some of the more contemporary techniques used by archaeologists, geologists, and anthropologists as they uncover the history of the world. You will also learn what they look for as excavation sites are dug. OBJECTIVES  Describe the two steps of the archaeological process.  Explain how geologists reconstruct the past through the study of rocks.  Recall the comparative method of anthropology.  Understand the role economic stability had on the advancement of early political systems. VOCABULARY anthropology the study of the human race

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artifacts objects made by humans that are unearthed by archaeologists chronological order an arrangement of events in the order in which the events took place contemporary concerning the present time geology the study of the earth, especially its rock forms method an orderly procedure or process; the regular manner of doing anything prehistory time prior to the use of written records scientific method the processes and procedures by which we acquire information seriation the procedure of developing a chronology of arranging remains at a site that pro pattern of development stratigraphy the branch of geology that studies the various layers of rock and soil MY NOTE ARCHAEOLOGY It is an easy process to find out what happened on this date ten years ago. There are plenty of Internet sites dedicated to providing this kind of information. Even if you were searching for events of one hundred years ago, you would not find it all that difficult. But what about events of five thousand years ago, before writing had been developed? How would you know how people lived and died? You would have to find the remains of an ancient culture and study them. In general, archaeologists do just that. They study the lives of prehistoric human communities through the examination of their material remains. Archeology

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The adventures of real-life archaeologists may not be quite as glamorous as they are in the movies, but archaeologists do have a passion for discovering hidden truths about societies and cultures [A group of archeologists digging with machines at an excavation site]. Using various scientific methods, or specialized procedures that are unique to their field of study, they strive to determine the history of a given site. Two of these specialized methods are the use of surveys and excavations [An archeologist surveying a site with an instrument and someone looking at an artifact being dug up at a site]. When archaeologists survey a site, they select a location that has not been researched before, take soil samples, and uncover features of interest. They may take aerial photographs of the area, and use metal detectors to find metal objects. When archaeologists excavate, they dig for fossils and artifacts, both horizontally and vertically around objects. They attempt to determine the relative age of artifacts, and clean and study them for clues about the past. Archaeologists also preserve the artifacts. Artifacts can usually be fairly easily associated with one of three broad time periods, or ages: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, or the Iron Age. Stone, Bronze, and Iron refer to the time periods when these materials were first used to make tools. These ages are a part of prehistory, the time when written records were not available. Archaeologists compare similar artifacts from different regions of the world to establish an accurate timeframe. However, the dates in each of these periods will vary for different parts of the world, because of differences in the rate of development in technology and social organization. Sometimes, a more accurate dating method is required. When archaeologists want to know a more exact date for an artifact, they can use carbon dating to date fossils found in the same layer as the artifact [A scientist in a laboratory demonstrating carbon dating]. SHOW TRANSCRIPT

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Match the vocabulary word with its meaning. 1 . anthropology an orderly process or procedure 2 . method time prior to the use of written records 3 . prehistory the procedures and processes by which we acquire information 4 . scientific method the procedure of developing a chronology of arranging remains at a site that produces a consistent pattern 5 . seriation the branch of geology that studies the various layers of rock and soil 6 . stratigraphy the study of the human race The dating of artifacts is done by a _____-age system based on the development of tools and technology. three 2 3 4 5 6 1

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four five Absolute dating can be determined by which of the following. Select all that apply. tree-ring patterns Earth's magnetic field a historian's journal coral growth cycle radioactivity photo comparison Relative dating helps to determine . How are anthropologists able to make generalizations about human behavior? studying isolated groups of people researching the archaeological debris of different societies knowing the regularities in human custom What best describes a rite of passage? a ceremony that marks passing stages in life a generalization of how people live a custom that historians study to determine the history of a people What BEST defines anthropology? study of past cultures study of people chronological order

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study of differences between people Which of the following are rites of passage, according to Arnold van Gennep? Select all that apply. marriage high-school graduation puberty death speech birth What did economic stability lead to in the Neolithic Revolution? the advent of fire ceremonies and rites political systems planting crops //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// REWARDS FROM REFUSE Imagine being asked to go to your room and place some of your most valued items in a box. Maybe you put your laptop, CDs, posters, skateboard, favorite T-shirt, cell phone, and shoes in the box. Then you go to the backyard, dig a hole several feet deep, and bury your items. The items remain buried for about forty thousand years; then an archaeologist digs them up. What would the archaeologist think about your lifestyle, your values, and the culture in which you lived? This is the challenge for archaeologists, anthropologists, and geologists when they analyze artifacts from prehistoric cultures. What can we learn about the cultural characteristics of early human communities? What can we learn about the influence of climate, geographic location, economic specialization, and presence of religion?

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OBJECTIVES  Illustrate the cultural characteristics of early human communities.  Review how climate, geography, economics, and religion influence communities. VOCABULARY hominid a primate belonging to a family of which modern humans belongs hunter-gatherer early society where people hunted and gathered food CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY ANCESTORS The early humans did not leave a written record of their activities, thoughts, or lifestyles. Without such a record, archaeologists have relied on fossils, skeletal remains, and artifacts to construct theories about the lives of early humans. As a result, the story of the human race's earliest beginnings is a topic of debate among scientists. Most researchers have concluded that early humans lived in small communities as hunter- gatherers and focused on providing the basic needs of shelter, safety, and food. As research continues on the study of the human past, names of eras are used to identify general historical periods. Classifying history into periods can be helpful in remembering a chronological order. One method of classification is to name an era for an event or person. For example, the time before Columbus discovered the Americas is called the pre- Columbian era. The eras presented in this lesson are classified in the same manner, usually after different types of fossil remains. Remember, historians cannot accurately draw exact lines across the sands of time to indicate exact dates of an era. To do so would take all the fun out of learning the eras. It is believed that early humans in hunter-gatherer societies existed by searching for edible plants and hunting animals in the wild. This method was primarily used by human societies for more than two million years, or until the end of the Paleolithic Period. During that time, the hunter-gatherers went through a period of social, cultural,

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and technological evolution and change. Let us look at how these societies lived and changed in ancient times. Hunter-gatherer societies tended to be nomadic by nature. They relied on the natural environment of a region for sufficient plant food and wild animals to keep them alive. The length of time they remained in a given region depended upon the available food, climate conditions, and amount of stored food. Because of these conditions, the hunter-gatherer societies usually were quite small, ranging from ten to thirty individuals. They may have been organized into larger groups of up to one hundred or more when a large food supply was available. Larger groups learned to watch the migratory patterns of animals and organize their hunting strategy to obtain food. Depending on how often the society moved, the settlements of hunter-gatherers could be either temporary or permanent. The more nomadic ones probably set up camps by using natural rock shelters or temporary shelters of various natural materials. These sites enabled the societies to develop their culture, language, and social structure. Hunter-Gatherer Society [Shadow figure hunters with spears] Due to the nomadic nature of hunter-gatherer societies, there was not really a formal system of leadership or social classes, and individuals did not appear to have many personal possessions. Generally, men did the hunting and women gathered plants, berries, and vegetables [A hunter standing over water with a spear looking to hunt fish]. Individuals worked for the good of the group. Later, hunter-gatherers left behind crude art forms. Rock paintings of animals, generally considered the most important paintings of the Paleolithic Era, have been found in France and Spain. There are many theories about the meaning of this art, but no real agreement. [Stonehenge, an odd standing rock formation located in England]. Another characteristic of later hunter-gatherer societies appears to be the development of religious rituals around life events such as birth, puberty, marriage, and death. Grave sites indicate the practice of specific burial rites, similar to modern-day rituals. Items such as jewelry, tools, and flowers have been discovered in ancient graves and caskets. Hunter-gatherer societies were the earliest to develop tools and use fire to survive their harsh environment, which began a series of important changes in their ways of life. The era in which early people first made tools is called the Paleolithic Age. Sometimes

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called the Old Stone Age, it lasted up until around 10,000 B.C., or to the beginning of agriculture and farming. As human society developed, they began to fashion tools from wood, clay, and animal parts. Improved weapons such as knives, axes, hammers, and arrows helped humans become better hunters, which meant they did not need to spend so much time chasing herds. Tools such as scrapers, awls, and needles allowed them to make clothing and build shelter to provide protection from the environment [A stick, leaf hut demonstrating the tools used provided shelter]. The discovery of fire provided warmth and protection against wild animals, and introduced cooking to human culture. These developments had an incredible ripple effect for the people of the Paleolithic Age. EARLY HOMINIDS Australopithecus [A full skeletal body curled in a fossilized form that’s been discovered]. Scientists examine the fossilized, or preserved, remains of early humans to learn more about who they were and how they lived. Modern humans and their extinct ancestors are part of a group of species called Hominids, members of the family Hominidae, which includes the great apes. All species of hominids, except for Homo sapiens, or modern humans, are now extinct. It is believed the first hominids appeared in Africa, around three to four million years ago [Map of the continent of Africa]. Unfortunately, there are too many gaps in the fossil record to understand exactly how modern humans emerged. However, scientists have identified groups of hominids that they believe are important to our understanding of the story of early people: Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensi, and Homo sapiens [Four skulls demonstrating the evolution of species]. Scientists believe that australopithecines are the hominids that are our most immediate ancestors. The australopithecines emerged about three million years ago, in the areas of southern and eastern Africa. The most famous australopithecine fossil to be uncovered by scientists is named Lucy [image of a full skeleton that is representing with

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it features that of an australopithicus or Hominid]. During the time that she was alive, Lucy stood just over three feet tall and weighed 65 pounds. Scientists uncovered Lucy's skeleton in 1974 in Hadar, Ethiopia. By examining the fossilized remains of australopithecines like Lucy, scientists have determined that these hominids walked upright and had a small brain size. Their diet consisted of plant material that was gathered from their surroundings. There is no scientific evidence that the australopithecines created or used tools. Details about their life are very sketchy, since only six of their remains have been discovered. Homo habilis . The first hominid included in the genus Homo is Homo habilis . Homo habilis probably appeared 2.5 to 1.5 million years ago in the southern and eastern regions of present-day Africa. These hominids are believed to have walked upright and to have had a larger brain size than the australopithecines. Like the australopithecines, though, Homo habilis ate plants; however, Homo habilis supplemented their plant diet with some meat when it was accessible. The fossil record seems to point to three innovations beginning about this time. These three cultural changes included the creation and use of tools, new subsistence or living patterns, and living in new environmental zones or geographic areas. Homo habilis were discovered around 1960 by a family of scientists, the Leakeys, at Olduvai Gorge in Kenya. The scientists nicknamed Homo habilis the "handyman" because there is evidence that Homo habilis used simple tools. Scientists have uncovered stone scrapers, choppers, and flakes that they believe Homo habilis used to cut raw meat.

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Stone tools Homo erectus . The next species included in the genus Homo is called Homo erectus , who appeared about 1.8 million years ago. Fossils of Homo erectus have been found in Africa, Asia, and Europe. Homo erectus walked upright and had a larger brain than Homo habilis . Unlike its predecessors, Homo erectus hominids were hunters and meat eaters. Homo erectus also developed more complex tools than Homo habilis . Stone hand axes have been found in areas of Europe. These axes would have been used for butchering, cutting, or digging. In addition, scientists have found evidence that Homo erectus were the first of the early hominids to use fire. In a sense, they developed the first of the Swiss Army knives of their times. Their toolkit included choppers, cleavers, and hammers; this style and type of tools spread into Southwest Asia about 1.4 million years ago and later reached southern Europe by about 600,000 years ago. Homo erectus were also the first to travel from the tropical environment in Africa to the temperate climatic zones of Asia and Europe. This may have been made possible through changes in tool technology, improved hunting-gathering practices, and the use of fire. It is not known how Homo erectus obtained fire, or if he had the ability to create it.

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Neanderthals. Homo neanderthalensis , or Neanderthals, are also included in the history of hominid evolution. Scientists do not believe, however, that Neanderthals are the direct ancestors to Homo sapiens . Nevertheless, Neanderthals appeared 230,000 years ago in the areas of western Asia and Europe. Scientists have discovered that Neanderthals had larger brains than modern humans. They were also much larger and stronger than the average modern person. Neanderthals used stone tools for hunting large and powerful animals. We also know that they hunted their prey in groups. In addition, scientists have discovered evidence which indicates that Neanderthals cared for their sick and buried their dead. They appear to be the first human group to demonstrate the control of fire for cooking food, warmth, and protection. LET'S REVIEW! Before continuing on with the problem set below, review the chart and the following main ideas:  The Paleolithic era is characterized by the first use of tools.  The human race's origins are in Africa, and over time, early humans moved into other areas of the world. Name Origi ns Locati on Characteristics Tools Australopithecus (australopithecines) 3 million years ago southe rn and easter n Africa  walked upright  had small brains  ate plants no evidence of tool- making Homo habilis 2 million years ago Africa  walked upright  had larger brains than  sto ne scr ape rs  sto

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Australop ithecus  ate mainly plants  sometim es ate meat and bone marrow  were gatherers and scavenge rs ne cho ppe rs  sha rp flak es of sto ne Homo erectus 1.8 million years ago Africa, Asia, Europe  walked upright  had larger brains than earlier hominids  hunted and ate meat  fire  sto ne han d axe s Homo neanderthalensis (Neand erthals) 230,0 00 years ago Europe and wester n Asia  walked upright  had larger brains than modern man stone tools

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 hunted and ate meat Homo sapiens (modern humans) 200,0 00 years ago Africa, Asia, Europe  walked upright  had an average size brain  hunted and ate meat  made cave paintings  created burial sites  made bracelets and necklace s  par alle l- sid ed bla des  spe ars Match these items. Match the items in the left column to the items in the right column. 1 . hominid early society where people hunted and gathered food 2 . hunter- gatherer a primate belonging to a family of which modern humans belongs Choose all that apply. The length of time hunter-gatherers stayed in one region depended on _____. 2 1

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climate conditions other nomadic people available food amount of stored food soil fertility The era in which early humans made tools is called the _____. Tool Age New Stone Age Paleolithic Age Bronze Age Place the species in the order in which they appeared on Earth. first: second : third: fourth: fifth: What is the first species of humans found outside Africa? Homo sapiens Homo erectus Homo habilis What species first appeared to walk upright? Australopithecines Homo habilis Homo erectus Neanderthals Homo sapiens

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Homo erectus Homo habilis Neanderthals Australopithecines What species may have been the first to use crude tools? Homo habilis Homo erectus Australopithecines Homo sapiens The origin of the human species appears to be in _____. Europe Asia Africa Middle East /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// HUMANS MIGRATE AND ADAPT Introduction to Human Migration There is a famous major league baseball player who has traveled a lot during his career, playing for countless clubs including the Houston Astros, Chicago Cubs, Cleveland Indians, Pittsburgh Pirates, Atlanta Braves, New York Yankees, Philadelphia Phillies, Chicago White Sox, Los Angeles Dodgers, San Francisco Giants, and the Texas Rangers. That's quite a list! If you were to drive this route, you would go about thirteen thousand miles! That is a long way to travel and a lot of places to go in order to pursue the dream of being in the "Big Show."

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Back and forth between climates, hot and humid to cold and snowy, from the coast to the Midwest, zig-zagging across the country. In today's world, such traveling takes a very short time. Driving eight hours a day, you would complete those miles in about twenty-five days. Flying would take far less. But suppose you instead had to walk it, over rough terrain. What if you had to live off the land while doing it? Such was the life of early humans. They had to endure changes in climate and environment. They lived off the land, not knowing when their next meal was going to come. Sometimes, it would take days to kill their food, and hunting was done year-round, regardless of the weather. As early people moved from the African continent to other areas of the globe, they had to learn to manage and survive in new and unfamiliar places. There were two main factors that influenced their development: environment and geography. These factors shaped early human behavior. DEVELOPMENT AND MIGRATION OF HOMO SAPIENS What Factors Influenced Human Development? Development and Migration of Homo sapiens Among scholars, there are three major viewpoints as to how modern humans came to inhabit the earth. Although they hold differing opinions, in some respects they do agree that the descendents of humans rose out of Africa. What happened next breeds the debate. Here are the main points of the three theories: Out-of-Africa model. This theory states that modern humans evolved relatively recently from older Homo sapiens (200,000-50,000 years ago) only in Africa, migrated to Europe and Asia, and replaced all populations which had descended from Neanderthals and older Homo erectus . Therefore, modern human variation is a relatively recent phenomenon. The pieces of evidence that point to this are:  fossils of modern-like humans found in Africa;  stone tools and other artifacts that support African origin; and

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 DNA studies that suggest a founding population in Africa. Multiregional Continuity model. The Multiregional Continuity model suggests that after Homo erectus left Africa and settled in other portions of the world, regional populations slowly evolved into modern humans. Major points of this theory include:  all living humans came from the species Homo erectus that left Africa;  the development of Homo sapiens was not confined to just one area, but took place throughout the entire world where humans lived; and  Humans interbreeding in separate regions are responsible for a continuity of characteristics in various geographical locations—these continuities are the races we see today. Assimilation model. This model attempts to provide a middle ground between the first two theories. Its main points:  The first modern humans did originate in Africa.  Migration into other regions did not simply replace other existing human societies; rather, humans interbred to a limited degree and formed new hybrid species. No one really knows how modern humans developed. However, these theories do provide a framework to build upon in our understanding of ancient events. Processes and Factors in Early Migration of Homo Sapiens Climate played a major role in the early migration patterns of humans. [Glaciers and ice pockets] There have been a series of ice ages over time, each of which affected when and where people moved. For example, the ice ages caused climate changes in Africa that reduced forests and opened vast grassy plains. As animals made adjustments by moving to other locations, people followed, because they depended on the game to survive. As they migrated to new locations, such as the Middle East and southern Asia, new opportunities arose. Humans multiplied and flourished by spreading thinly across all the major land masses of the world except Antarctica, and by adapting to a wide range of environments, from equatorial forests to Arctic tundra. As humans spread to various areas of the world, scientists believe that regional subspecies were created, as they adapted to different climates. [A skull in the form of a Neanderthal] One of these subspecies is believed to be the Neanderthals, who

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appeared in Africa, migrated into Asia, and eventually became the first hominids to colonize Europe. [A map of Europe and Asia with parts of blue shaded indicates the migrating patterns of Neanderthals] Homo sapiens, or modern humans, were another subspecies that migrated from Africa and spread eastward, eventually crossing the land bridges of the Bering Plain into North America. Early humans may have used simple boats or rafts during the ice ages when sea levels dropped, allowing for migration to Australia. Fossils ranging from Homo erectus to modern humans have been found near sea coasts, providing good evidence that ocean- going boats were constructed to migrate across the oceans. These migration patterns had far reaching effects, including the possible extinction of some mammals, such as the wooly mammoth, caused by hunting patterns. Another effect was the development of separate cultures, as a result of increased distances between groups, including the development of separate human language in these segregated regions. EARLY HUMANS ADAPTED TO DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS What was life like for the typical hunter-gatherer society? Because no written records exist from so long ago, archaeologists have little to base conclusions upon, other than noting the modern-day hunter-gatherer. In this way, scientists can get a general idea of the effects environment had in their lives. It is probable that many died young from illness, accidents during hunting expeditions, or childbirth crises. Studies of modern hunter-gatherers have indicated, however, that humans had some leisure time and an adequate and varied diet. Let's look at some similarities and differences among hunter-gatherer communities in Africa, Eurasia (Europe and Asia), and the Americas. You will also learn how humans adapted to change. Adaptations are modifications or adjustments that people make to better suit changing conditions. When we adapt to our environments, we change our behavior. Below are some characteristics common to all hunter-gatherer communities:  They showed a level of technology such as tools and fire;  they possessed and used knowledge of plants and animals;

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 their communities were generally nomadic in nature as food supplies moved or were used up;  their communities were small in size; and  there appeared to be divisions in communities of age and gender. African communities. The ebb and flow of the ice ages changed the climate of northern Africa from tropical, to grasslands, and then to desert. Each change forced the early communities to adapt. Their diet consisted primarily of plants and vegetables with some meat. They used primitive tools. Some artifacts suggest the use of ground-up pigments that were used for making paints. Some evidence of sculpture, necklaces, and bracelets has been found in these regions. Eurasian communities. Much of the evidence collected from this region of the world comes from Cro-Magnon man. In many ways, he looked much the same as modern man today. Since his time on earth was so recent, many artifacts have remained intact for archaeologists to study. Skull of Cro-Magnon Man Although the Cro-Magnon had a semi-nomadic hunting culture that followed the movements of the animals, they also built huts, pit houses, and other dwellings for

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shelter and protection. Furs were made from animal hides and sewn together, using bone needles, for added warmth and protection. New implements were used to make clothing, engravings, and sculptures in their communities. New technology included the use of fire. They ate vegetation and meat and hunted many different types of animals, including mammoths, antelope, bison, oxen, and horses. Early Cro-Magnon hunted mainly with spears, with bows and arrows to come later. Their toolkit was quite sophisticated, with the use of bones, antlers, and blades of flint (stone) used to prepare animal skins. They used ground pigments, berries, and charcoal to make various colors such as red, black, and brown for their art. In addition, the art extended to a wide variety of things, including decorated tools, beads, ivory carvings of animals and humans, musical instruments, and shell jewelry. Cave wall paintings discovered in Spain and Southwestern France provide evidence of cave bears, lions, and mammoths. One ritual of Cro-Magnon's was the manner in which they buried their dead. Bodies were buried in a single grave, along with body ornaments such as pierced shells and animal teeth that were probably worn as a necklace or pendant. This may suggest some thought or view of an afterlife. America's communities. When modern humans began to arrive in North America, the environment was quite different from today. The environment of North America was influenced by the climatic effects of the Ice Age. The sea levels were lower, and the shorelines extended further than today, creating a broad highway between Asia and North America. The first to arrive in North America brought with them such basic skills as firemaking, flint chipping, and at least a basic knowledge of how to process foods, make clothes, and build shelters for protection. Whether humans came by foot across land bridges or frozen ice sheets or by boat to North America, the migration from northern Canada to the tip of South America was rapid and diverse. Because edible food plants in many locations and at different seasons of the year were scarce, the early human was, in most cases, an eater of animals. Being hunters also made them nomadic, as they followed the herds of wild animals. Hunting was very easy with the vast animal resources available. Weapons and tools were of stone, bone, and wood. People developed sophisticated hunting skills as they studied the habits of the

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animals, including their physical features and weaknesses. Each year, the animal supply would dwindle as a result of hunting and changes in the climate. This forced the hunter-gatherers to move further and further south and east in search of food. Eventually, as climatic changes and sources of food changed, so did human culture and behavior. As in Africa and Eurasia, societies began to settle in various regions of the Americas and, in the process, to develop their own unique cultures. LET'S REVIEW!  Environment includes the vegetation and animal existence as it influenced the behavior of early Homo sapiens .  There are three current and past theories for the emergence of Homo sapiens or modern humans: o Out of Africa model; o Multiregional Continuity model; and o Assimilation model.  There were similarities and differences among hunter-gatherer communities in Africa, Eurasia, and the Americas in how they adapted to the environment.  We know many of the characteristics of Cro-Magnon communities, including how they hunted, what they ate, and how they buried their dead. Early humans most likely experienced which of the following changes in climate and environment? Select all that apply. changes in environment from grassland (savannahs) to tropical forests changes is climate forcing migration to find animals for food change in climate revealing passageways for migration changes in climate altering rivers with droughts or floods changes in environment causing animal habits changes What are the three theories for the emergence of Homo sapiens ? Select all that apply.

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Assimilation model Eurasian model Multiregional Continuity model Transatlantic model Out-of-Africa model The _____ model suggests that living humans came from the species Homo erectus and that their development took place throughout the world. Assimilation Multiregional Continuity Out-of-Africa The _____ model suggests that Homo sapiens migrated to Europe and Asia replacing populations descended from Neanderthals and older Homo erectus . Select all that apply. Assimilation Out-Of-Africa Multiregional Continuity Three of the common characteristics of hunter-gatherer communities are _____. Select all that apply. they stayed in one place for long periods of time their communities were small in size they possessed knowledge of plants and animals there were no divisions in communities of age and gender

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they possessed the knowledge of tools and fire Much of the evidence we have on early humans comes from _____. Homo erectus Neanderthals Cro-Magnon The two main factors that influenced the development of humans were _____. environment and rivers geography and ice ages environment and geography /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 13- POPULATING REGIONS OF THE EARTH Whether UR MORF U HV some understanding about language. ATM UR reading a type of language written by millions of PPL around the world. FYI NAYL U will learn how PPL CR8 language, if U can keep from ROTFL. NALOPKT. AAR, T+ and @TEOTD U will know a little about the history behind language, N2M communication. TTYL. In today's lesson, you'll learn about the development of language and communication . OBJECTIVES  Define key words such as linguistics and communication.  Identify different forms of early communication and writing.  Explain that the development of human beings was tied directly to language and communication.  Identify how language spread and how it developed in relation to different people groups.

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VOCABULARY collective learning the ability to learn and transfer knowledge to others communication the process by which we exchange ideas and information cuneiform a language that used symbols to represent objects hieroglyphs symbols used to represent sounds linguist a person who studies language linguistics the study of language petroglyphs pictures carved out of stone ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE Linguistics is the study of human language. It includes the study of structure, syntax, phonetics, and meaning. Those people who study linguistics are called linguists . The term also applies to those who study the creation and development of human language from a historical perspective. Linguists often debate about the origins of language. There are various theories about the development of language. Some scholars believe that communication may have begun with sign language using hand signals. Early people would have needed to communicate with one another in order for the cooperative groups to have successful hunts. Some form of communication would have come in handy in the event a large predator approached. As early humans migrated out of Africa and spread throughout the world, they faced many challenges. One of those challenges was communication. Without language, how were they to warn of impending danger? How could they tell another hunter where game was located?

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In a time where there are between 5,000 and 6,000 languages spoken, it is difficult to imagine a world without them, yet early humans had to deal with such a state. How they developed languages and communication is a matter of conjecture. No one really knows for sure. Background. Homo sapiens have an inherent capability for language that is not present in any other species or animals known today. This separates people from the animals because people have the ability to form words and create languages. We use language every day to communicate with one another. It is believed that a system of verbal communication came either from a language with a common ancestor or by use of nonverbal communication, such as signs or hand movements. However, no current human group speaks a "primitive" or basic language. Human language:  possesses a grammar and syntax (the rules to form grammatical sentences);  can invent, translate, or borrow the vocabulary needed to express the full range of the speakers' concepts; and  is able to precisely express very complicated and abstract ideas and give information about what is past, future, or invented.  Theories of Language Development  It is difficult to imagine what life was like before human language. There are between five and six thousand languages in the world today, grouped into fewer than 20 language families. Languages are linked to each other by shared words, sounds, or grammatical constructions. [Text: mother language pointing to Afro- Asiatic and Indo European. Under Indo European: Indic, Slavic, Hellenic, Italic, Celtic, Germanic] There are two main branches of human language: Indo- European and Afro-Asiatic, each containing various language families. One theory states that the members of each of these linguistic groups descended from one "proto-language," a common ancestor. Experts believe these proto- languages may have been spoken as recently as a few thousand years ago. The majority of linguists believe the first "mother" language originated somewhere in Eurasia, although this is not known for certain.  [Statue of a Greek God] Ancient Greek mythology taught that language was not a human invention at all, but a gift from the gods. According to modern philosophers and linguists, language likely began with the use of various imitative

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sounds that humans made to mimic the sounds of the world around them and express emotion. As this form of communication progressed, humans began connecting specific sounds to specific things and actions. This suggests that humans began to think in the abstract.  The ability to use words to symbolize abstract ideas is key to human adaptability and development of culture [Text: Abstract Thinking with arrow pointing to Development of Human Culture]. Many linguists believe language developed in two phases. The first phase was through the use of verbal or gestural signs [Hand with two fingers up to indicate signing]. Early humans probably used a form of signing much simpler than sign languages today to communicate. The second phase of language development employed formal syntax. Syntax refers to the patterns that govern the way words are combined to form phrases, and how phrases are then combined to form sentences. [Text: food, water, we, need, then moves around to form the sentence We need food and water.] Being able to compose complete sentences improved precision and clarity in thought and communication for early humans. Some anthropologists believe that humans are born with a general language instinct. [A human brain] This neutral processing network contains a universal grammar for learning the meaning of words and speaking a language. This instinct gives human babies the ability to learn any language when they are born.   THE SPREAD OF LANGUAGE  Many scholars think that there was one source for all of the languages. This single language is thought to have begun around the fourth millennium B.C. in an area called the steppes of Ukraine, southern Russia, and Kazakhstan. With this newfound ability to communicate, it seemed that people’s ability to cooperate grew. The people who lived here were from the Neolithic era and tended to be pastoral people or people who traveled with herds across certain regions.  Those who took to farming stayed in one location, and their language developed over time to be distinct from that of their wandering kin. The groups on the move focused their livelihood around raising and maintaining herds for their food source. In fact, they were the first to domesticate horses and the first to develop the chariot. These advancements were necessary as they traveled in search of

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fresh pastures for their animals. In their travels, they would encounter other people and spread their language to new groups.   As language spread, it took on variations among different groups. These groups developed languages that evolved into many different families of languages that were radically different. So, how does one language evolve into completely different languages?  One idea is that different people used different items that the original speakers did not use. If you were from a family that traveled with animals for a living, you probably didn’t have a lot of spades and plows. You developed language that made sense for your livelihood. Once farmers had a verbal means of communication, thanks to your family, they would have changed it to adapt to their lifestyle and use it in a way that made sense in their cultural development. They might not have had goats or cared about tents, but they did need words for plow and oxen.  The interesting thing is that once tribes, groups, and budding societies began to adapt language to their cultures, the development of language helped them to develop their cultures. There were more ways to communicate concrete things, such as tools, as well as abstract ideas, such as “hungry" or “hello.”

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  LANGUAGE AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT  Throughout history, ever-increasing sophistication of communication and language played an important role in the development of societies and culture. Many scholars believe that, as societies grew in size, communication also grew and became more and more complex.  With the use of spoken languages, humans could explain things and ideas precisely and in detail. As a result, large amounts of information were collected and exchanged. This information was passed on from generation to generation. Humans were no longer learning by imitation but by understanding how things worked. Information about hunting strategies, use of plants as medicine, gathering food, making tools and weapons, and a thousand other topics grew in complexity when passed from one generation to the next. Humans began to use the process of collective learning , the ability to learn and then to transfer that knowledge to others.  How was collective learning so helpful for humans? As humans migrated to different parts of the world, languages diverged and multiplied. Humans could now share ideas on how to adapt and cope in new environments. Humans living in frigid climates quickly coped with the environment by adopting warm clothing of skins and furs, building homes of sod or skins, and eating cooked mammoth steaks. Humans could now leave their native regions and move to new environments.  In addition, newly acquired information through collective learning resulted in the development of new tools and materials. The hunter-gatherer communities living near seashores learned how to fish through the development of the fishhook. The making of tools illustrates how individual groups developed their distinctive lifestyles and passed it on through the generations. Exchange or trade systems arose as groups exchanged tools and ideas, even if they were separated by hundreds of miles. Cultures began to grow because of language and collective learning.  Language is one of the most important characteristics of a group's culture. It enables people to transfer information from one generation to another. It is a way

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for one's heritage to be passed along for preservation. Today, we often rely on a person's language as a way of identifying that person’s culture or race. In this way, communication and language played a central role in cultural development and in adapting to increasingly complex environments.  Eventually, oral forms of communication were translated into the written word. Let's now take a look at several ways in which our earliest ancestors expressed ideas and communicated in written form.  Communication. Again, humans have the ability to form words and create languages. Language is used as communication every day. Communication is the process by which we exchange ideas and information. Early Communication Some of the earliest forms of communication appear as cave paintings [Ancient paintings depicting hunters and spirits on cave surfaces]. In 1879, the archaeological world was turned upside down by the discovery of prehistoric cave paintings near Cantabria, Spain. The artwork was estimated to be as old as 32,000 years. Similar ancient drawings have been found in France. These drawings of animals were painted using a mixture of blood and powdered rock. No one really understands the significance of cave paintings. The drawings might represent spirits, or depict a hunting ritual. Regardless of their exact meaning, there is agreement that cave paintings like these contain clues about the religious, social, and cultural characteristics of early societies. Between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago, humans began carving images into stone instead of just painting them [Ancient carvings of hunters and animals on cave surfaces]. These images are called petroglyphs, and can be found all over the world. Like the cave paintings, most petroglyphs depict animals, but there are some that contain crude human forms. A third form of early communication is called cuneiform. This is the earliest known form of writing. It dates back to about 5,000 years ago, and was used in the Fertile Crescent region. [Map of Mesopotamia and Jericho, the fertile Crescent region] Cuneiform used symbols to create lists or simple records. [Drawing depicting Cuneiform with a hand holding a skinny pick and is etching in a stone] As it matured, cuneiform became a means to document important stories or events. Hieroglyphs are another form of ancient writing. Hieroglyphs are symbols that represent sounds, like an alphabet. [Symbol of an

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eye with curvy line drawn from it depicting Hieroglyphs] In some cases, they represented single letters and in others, words. The first hieroglyphs likely appeared in Egypt about 5,000 years ago. LET'S REVIEW! SWDYT? FWIW, language is one of the main reasons humans were able to advance so quickly. Without it, U could not speak OTP or read this lesson. Words make it all possible . . . CIAO. Before continuing on to the problem set below, take some time to review this lesson's main ideas:  One can only speculate about how and when language developed.  There are several theories on the origin of languages.  Language is an important aspect of collective learning and development of a person's culture.  Early forms of communication include drawings, petroglyphs , cuneiform , and hieroglyphs .  The growth of communication mirrored the growth of society and culture.  Match the vocabulary term with its meaning. 1. communication pictures carved out of stone 2. cuneiform a language that used symbols to represent objects 3. hieroglyphs symbols used to represent sounds 4. linguist person who studies languages 5. linguistics process by which we exchange ideas and information 6. petroglyphs the study of languages Complete the following sentence: Many linguists agree language developed in two stages, beginning with ____________________. greetings noises and gestures for danger 6 2 3 4 1 5

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symbols or drawings of food "sentences" of noises making up something meaningful The majority of linguists believe a mother language originated somewhere in _____. Asia Europe Africa Eurasia Choose all that apply. The study of human language includes the study of _____. syntax meaning structure spelling punctuation In your understanding, how did language spread from one Proto-Indo-European language to the more than 6,000 languages we speak today? (100-150 words) WRITER Humans as a rase and group have relied migratory growth and development dawn of time. The language that emerge from one place migrate with people of that place to place where they migrated two languages mixed together. people who move from one location to another follow this pattern bringing original language with them. The ability to learn and transfer knowledge to others is called _____. collective learning

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shared learning transferred learning Choose all that apply. Three early forms of communication were _____. hieroglyphs alphabets pictographs petroglyphs cuneiform //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// Q 14. Quiz: Peopling of the Earth UCS Adult Ed World History A – THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN SOCIETY QUIZ: PEOPLING OF THE EARTH Place the species in the order in which they appeared on Earth. first: second : third: fourth: fifth: The Paleolithic Age is also known as the _____. Australopithecines Homo habilis Homo erectus Neanderthals Homo sapiens

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New Stone Age Old Stone Age Bronze Age Ice Age Homo erectus is believed to be the first confirmed species found outside of _____. Asia Europe Africa America Quantitative analysis includes use grammar have rules for our sentences invent languages borrow words from other languages use abstract terms including past and future Collective learning is the ability to learn and transfer _____ to others. products knowledge education The human species that may have been the first to use crude tools is _____. Cro-Magnon Homo erectus

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Australopithecines Homo habilis The procedure of comparing cultural similarities as well as differences among societies is called the _____. similar method comparative method characteristics method Ancient rock paintings have been found in _____. Spain and Russia France and Turkey Spain and France India and China Match the vocabulary term with its meaning. 1 . anthropology the study of the human race 2 . scientific method symbols used to represent objects 3 . cuneiform symbols used to represent sounds 4 . hieroglyphs pictures carved out of stone 5 . linguistics the processes and procedures by which we acquire information 6 . petroglyphs the study of languages What are some characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies? 1 3 4 6 2 5

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WRITER Get food through hunting ,fishing and gathering for survival, moving somewhere after aperiod of time . Some are nomadic/mobil and highly adaptive to their local area. What made the climate of northern Africa change from tropical to grasslands, and then to desert? tilt of the earth's axis the Nile River Ice Ages overpopulation of the region Today, there are between _____ languages spoken on Earth. 14,000 and 15,000 8,000 and 10,000 200 and 300 5,000 and 6,000 The first hominid that is believed to have walked upright is _____. Australopithecines Homo sapiens Homo habilis Neanderthals _____ is the closest relative to modern humans. Cro-Magnon Homo erectus

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Neanderthals It is believed that a mother language originally developed in _____. Asia Eurasia India Africa What resulted from the planting of crops in the beginnings of human society? economic reforms political debates economic stability political stability ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 15 ESTABLISHING AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITIES In the old days, there was no take-out, and meals served at home were entirely different from today. For example, there was a time when all cooking took place on a cast-iron

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stove. You would have to gather wood and get a fire started inside the stove. Then you'd have to maintain a hot fire while you cooked. If you were cooking a chicken, you'd have to go outside, catch a chicken, butcher it, and then clean it. Any fresh vegetables were already in the house because you would have spent time in the garden earlier. One meal might have taken hours to fix. Today, you can fix chicken that has already been cleaned. You can stick it in the microwave or run down to your favorite fast-food restaurant. All of this can be done in less than an hour. In this lesson, you'll learn about the transition from hunter-gatherer to farmer. You'll read how and why humans established settled communities and experimented with agriculture. By studying archaeological evidence, you'll discover how agricultural communities emerged and explore the far-reaching social and cultural impact on early humans. OBJECTIVES  Describe the development of agrarian societies. VOCABULARY agrarian societies based on agriculture domestication ability to alter the makeup and/or behavior of plants and animals to make them humans Mesolithic Age the middle period in the development of technology between the Paleolithic an Neolithic Age an era of human history beginning about 12,000 years ago and marking the eme societies, often called the New Stone Age sedentary the process of settling down in one location

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EARLY HUMANS IN TRANSITION People's progression toward farming and domestication had its beginnings prior to the Neolithic Age . The rise of agrarian societies is traced back to the end of the ice age in the Mesolithic Age . Archaeologists have identified the Mesolithic Age as the middle period in the development of technology between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age. The thawing of Northern Europe resulted in a warmer, rainier, ice-free condition. This changed the environment as forests, meadowlands, and small animal populations flourished. The increase in natural resources was so great that some of the Mesolithic people stayed in one place all or part of the year to hunt and forage. Some local societies became sedentary and established villages and hamlets instead of following their nomadic ways. The best example of this process occurred in the region of the Fertile Crescent, an area of Southwest Asia with plentiful water. Groups in this region began to form tiny settlements for collecting stands of wild grain and other edible animals and plants. This sedentary lifestyle proved to be a turning point in human development. So, why did humans want to change from their hunting lifestyle?There are two viewpoints that attempt to answer this question. First, some believe that farming was a slow, fragmented process. Farming was taking place at different times in different parts of the world. The process was not necessarily brought about because humans were inventing agriculture; rather, it was the gradual result of people's decisions regarding the production of food. Many continued to live for thousands of years entirely as hunter- gatherers or combined growing crops with gathering and hunting. The second view is that agriculture took the world by storm. Farming communities emerged on most major land masses within about eight thousand years. The farming communities began to replace hunter-gathering societies to the point that very few of the latter exist today. Did you know?

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Among the animals that were originally wild and were later domesticated are dogs, horses, cows, chickens, llamas, and camels. Either way, the development of food production took place on an unheard-of scale. People began to domesticate both plants and animals, thereby keeping their food sources close at hand. The important domesticated crops included the ancestors of wheat, barley, rye, and several other edible plants. Domestication of animals meant that animals once hunted were instead tamed and bred under human control. This took a long time, as some could be domesticated more easily than others and many not at all. Some animals were changed in ways that made it impossible for them to survive in the wild. Animals such as pigs, cows, and sheep were tamed and enclosed in pens. People now had a steady source of food and other materials. They no longer had to depend on hunting for animal products as in the past, although hunting and fishing continued. Human beings and domesticated plants and animals became dependent on one another. The effect on population growth cannot be underestimated. It is believed the world's population rose from about 6 million to 120 million in just 3,500 years. This development was helped along by a number of factors, including the introduction of new tools and methods learned over time. Another factor in population growth is attributed to the agrarian lifestyle. Once people stayed in one place with an abundance of food, families became larger. WHAT ARCHAEOLOGY TELLS US ABOUT EARLY AGRARIAN SOCIETIES Early Agrarian Societies Evidence of early agrarian societies comes primarily from archaeological sites in South Asia, East Asia, and Eastern Europe. Scientists studying early farming sites search for both natural and manmade evidence of agriculture and food practices. They analyze soil for evidence of dwellings, fields, or water channels so they can understand how the site was structured - how people lived in relation to the fields. Historians are also interested in how climate patterns affected the lives of ancient people. [A world map in different colors to indicate the climate changing over time]

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Climate patterns were especially important to early agrarian societies. Evidence of climate conditions from tree growth-ring patterns, artifacts, remains of local animal and plant life, and even ice core samples in frigid climates can help historians understand how the climate affected ancient humans. For example, historians may discover that a group of people learned how to harvest and cook a new type of plant after a dry summer killed one of their staple crops [dry, open land with crops growing]. Archaeologists often find the remains of ancient plants preserved in layers of earth. Scientists study the biological features of these plant remains to determine how sophisticated the farmers were in domesticating the crops. [hand digging through dirt looking for ancient plant life] Studying pollen grains in each layer of earth can tell scientists what plants were being grown together, and at what time. Archaeologists also study the animals ancient humans ate. By studying animal bones and remains of ancient livestock enclosures, archaeologists can tell whether animals were caught in the wild or were domesticated and raised for milk or slaughter. Early art and the invention of pottery provide clues about how ancient peoples used food and plants. [parietal art showing people and animals] The various plants and animals that were important to their way of life are depicted in their art. Stone pottery or baked clay pots can tell us how they stored, cooked, and transported food. [Stone bowl with a slender stone sticking out of it indicating a tool to smash food/materials]. The discovery of new tools in different strata at a site can reveal the relative chronology of a society's technological progress. There are many clues to be found in the earth that can teach us about how early agrarian societies lived. Another change brought on by the introduction of agrarian societies was the increased potential for illness and poor health. At first, this might seem odd; however, as people became sedentary, they also began to live closer together. When people were predominately hunter-gatherers, they had little contact with others. As a result, serious diseases had little chance to spread. As they settled down, the various illnesses became easier to contract. CHANGE IN CULTURAL BELIEFS Change in Cultural Beliefs

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As people settled into larger groups and put down roots, literally and figuratively, they had to learn to work together in more complex ways than they had in small hunter- gatherer groups. The culture and customs governing the social relationships of early hunter-gathering communities were no longer adequate in permanent settlements, which could be as large as ten thousand people [Walls and city structures surrounded by mountains]. There were several cultural shifts that probably happened quite quickly. One of these cultural shifts was the development of gender inequality [Symbols for male- blue circle with arrow and female- pink circle with a cross at the bottom]. In small hunter-gatherer groups where everyone knew each other well, men and women probably treated each other as equals. However, in a community of thousands of people, where organized systems were essential to survival, roles became increasingly divided and patriarchal, or male-led [Symbol for male sign pops out to emphasize male led]; societies began to emerge. Another consequence of this reorganization of society was class division. Permanent settlement meant people could begin to accumulate possessions. It was easy to see if your neighbor had more than you or was living more comfortably. To maintain order, a governing class emerged. These changes led to inequalities of power, influence, and well-being. As wealth and food surplus grew within communities, it became necessary for settlements to defend themselves against other groups looking for more resources. [Map of the Mediterranian colored in certain areas to indicate agricultural settlements] Archaeological sites of early agricultural settlements, like Catal Huyuk in Turkey and Jericho in the West Bank, show us the types of defense structures early agrarian societies built. Catal Huyuk was heavily fortified. Jericho built a town wall that was 18 feet high, with a tower that stretched at least 40 feet across. A ditch outside the wall was cut into solid limestone, 28 feet wide and eight feet deep. New weapons like sling stones, and later, maces and long-bladed knives, were developed by early societies to aid in defense. Another important cultural shift that accompanied agrarian settlement was the development of organized religion. Historians know that religion gained importance during this time, because they have found buildings built for public purposes that have religious markings. Carvings, paintings in the floor, and deliberately placed skulls of humans or animals have been found in these public buildings. Figurines found at

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different sites suggest the worship of female deities, so it appears that even as women were losing status in real-life, they were prominent in spiritual life. Special treatment was frequently given to human skulls as part of religious beliefs. Skulls were often separated from the skeleton. The skeleton was typically reburied under a floor or bench within the house or in a pit outside the home. Skulls were kept separate—either singly or in groups—and stored in containers or inside buildings. It is clear from archaeological evidence that the switch from hunter-gatherer to agrarian lifestyle significantly changed the ways in which humans lived. Agrarian societies made tremendous strides in technology and social thinking. The stage was set for further advancement in human culture. LET'S REVIEW! Before you begin the questions at the end of this lesson, review the points you will need to know.  Know the reasons for the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to settled communities based upon agriculture.  Know how archaeologists can tell from evidence the ways in which societies changed.  Know the apparent cultural beliefs of early agricultural settlements.  Match the vocabulary term with its meaning. 1 . agrarian an era of human history beginning about twelve thousand years ago, also known as the New Stone Age 2 . domestication the process of settling down in one location 3 . mesolithic age societies based on agriculture 4 . neolithic age the middle period in the development of technology 5 . sedentary the ability to tame plants and animals 4 5 1 3 2

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Choose all that apply. Early plants that were domesticated are _____. wheat corn rye beets barley Disease is easier to spread in _____ society. a hunter-gatherer an agrarian a nomad a rural Choose all that apply. Rapid growth in population and domestication created what new cultural changes? gender equality social class divisions less need for protection inequalities in power more complex religious beliefs What is the best choice for why agrarian societies included gender inequality?

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Hunter-gatherer groups would be more casual with equal treatment of men and women. In larger groups of people, organization was essential to survival; men took the more powerful role. Women led some societies, matriarchal societies, and later were idolized as deities. Leadership developed in agrarian societies but it is unknown how gender roles impacted the groups. ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// / 16 DEVELOPING AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES

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This is just a small taste of what life was like in early agrarian societies. As some people began to grow surpluses of food, others could begin working in different fields. Trade developed between professions. Capitalism was born. In this lesson, you will examine evidence that distinguishes hunter-gatherers from agricultural settlements, as well as environmental and architectural evidence about agricultural communities. You'll also learn reasons for developing and accepting a complete sedentary agriculture or retaining subsistence methods. OBJECTIVES  Trace the human transition from hunter-gatherer to farmer.  Relate why early humans made the transition to farmers.  Identify archaeological evidence about early agrarian societies.

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 Identify areas that would have been suitable for agricultural societies. VOCABULARY sedentary the process of settling down in one location subsistent describes the condition of managing to stay alive when there is little food SEDENTARY VS. SUBSISTENT LIFESTYLES Sedentary vs. Subsistent Sedentary vs. Subsistent The typical hunter did not just wake up one morning and say, "I think I'll take up farming." In most cases, humans did not have any idea that they were undergoing a significant lifestyle change. The process often took many generations, depending on environment and geography, and it was tougher in some places than in others. Places like Australia and southern Africa did not naturally provide plants or animals that were easily domesticated. Groups in frigid climates, like the Arctic, had to adapt a lifestyle that did not include strategies like domesticating crops or animals. Some groups had no choice but to subsist entirely by hunting and gathering. [Sedentary or subsistent then the “or” changes to “and”] The reality for many groups, at least at first, was a mixed lifestyle: they tended fields for part of the year, and hunted and gathered for the rest. As they became better at domesticating animals for meat, they could start to settle closer to their fields. Groups that were able to domesticate crops and animals could choose a sedentary lifestyle for three main reasons. [Bags of food including grains, beans and bread] First, farming produced a surplus of food for the lean times, including winter. [Women weaving items indicating not all were farmers, there were other jobs] Surplus food meant not everyone had to be a farmer; they could learn other occupations. And finally, large groups could now live together, which made life safer. Why would early societies want to settle into sedentary lifestyles? Probably for the same reasons we live sedentary lives today.

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There are not many of us who would choose to hunt and forage for our food. Think about it! We still live in agrarian societies, albeit far more advanced than the people we have been studying. Thanks to our ancient ancestors who gave up the hunt to plant and tend crops, we own more personal goods and live longer than ever before. We do not have to hunt wild game, dig for roots, or scavenge for road kill. We live in houses made of wood, brick, and stucco, instead of hides and tree limbs. Farming is considered a major game-changer in human history. Study the table below as it compares the hunter-gatherer lifestyle with that of the farmer. You will note that both have their benefits and liabilities. Which lifestyle is better? There is no question that both types of societies have contributed to the sophisticated way of life we enjoy today. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HUNTING/GATHERING AND FARMING Hunter-gatherer Society Agrarian Society moved frequently lived in one place few changes in technology rapid advances in technology better and healthier diet diet high in carbs and lower in protein more land needed to feed larger groups less land needed as farming techniques improved wide variety of food to eat most food from a single crop more leisure time less leisure time; more work less chance for famine due to climate greater chance for famine due to climate little social change; everyone equal greater organization and social change no surplus of food; must hunt often surplus of food during winter soil not depleted by overplanting soil depleted by overplanting trash spread over wide area increased supply of trash in one location hunt and gather, hunt and gather freedom to work different jobs more dangerous—predators, accidents safer job, fewer predators, etc.

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disease rarely spread very far rapid spread of disease possessions must be easily carried more personal belongings AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES AROUND THE WORLD Overall, most scholars would agree that the development of agriculture was an advance in human history. Agriculture created the foundation for the formation of societies and civilizations. The growth of societies meant that new achievements became possible. Take a look at the map above. Notice how there are certain areas that are green? Now, look more closely. What do those green areas have in common? That's right; at their center is a thin, wiggly line indicating a river. This map of the Middle East and North Africa shows what is called the Fertile Crescent and the Nile River Valley. The Fertile Crescent is also referred to as the cradle of civilization. All life needs water, and, in the ancient world, these two areas had an abundance of water that would annually overflow the riverbanks and flood the surrounding region. Animals would teem around these areas for the water and the rich foliage that comes with a river that floods and leaves fertile soil for plants. The abundance of animals would have drawn the earliest humans, who saw a ready food source. But, hunter-gatherers would have noticed something else.

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These areas were also a source of lush natural gardens. Gathering seeds and nuts would have been pretty easy in such a lush environment, but so would collecting and eating the nourishing plants that grew naturally along the rivers, such as barley, wheat, and even date palms. And, gathering plants is a lot easier, not to mention safer, than chasing down wild animals! As people adapted, they sorted out how to save seeds and replant the naturally occurring plants that were suitable for eating. Thus began an agricultural society! What are some of the main characteristics of agricultural societies? How did the various agricultural societies develop around the world? Let's investigate the archaeological sites of Mehrgarh, Pakistan; Banpo, China; Tripolye, Ukraine; Chilca Valley, South America; Jericho, Southwest Asia; and Gunditjmara, Australia, from 10,000 to 4,000 B.C. Archeological evidence from these sites helps to answer questions about the social, economic, religious, and agricultural characteristics of farming societies. For example, excavation of artifacts, such as jewelry, pottery, and greenstone amulets, hints at religious rituals. The location and position of skeletons suggests ideas about death and burial rituals. Stone tools, diggers, and scrapers provide evidence of different agricultural methods. Agricultural Societies Around the World [Map of Southwest Asia, 10,200 BCE - 8,800 BCE] The earliest permanent human settlement is believed to have been at Jericho in Southwest Asia, about 11,000 years ago. Settlers there first began harvesting wild cereals, then progressed to true farming, thanks to an underground spring that provided water at the rate of one thousand gallons per hour. [Map of South Asia, Mehrgarh 6,500 BCE - 2,500 BCE] A couple thousand years later, the first farmers settled down in South Asia, at a place called Mehrgarh in modern-day Pakistan. The people who lived here did not have the benefit of an underground spring, so they learned to dam the streams that ran through the valley to trap rich soil and provide water for agriculture. They grazed animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats in the surrounding high country. [Map of South America, Chilca Valley 8,000 BCE - 5,000 BCE] On the other side of the globe, farmers of the Chilca Valley in South America began cultivating seeds around 5,000 BC. They learned to domesticate specific seeds for the wet and dry times of the

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year so they had successful crops for more of the year. They also learned to alternate their crops, allowing for the replenishing of minerals in the soil. Banpo is an archaeological site in the Yellow River Valley in China. This small settlement was populated about 6,000 years ago. It consisted of about 100 houses, surrounded by a defensive ditch. [A tool that looks like a hoe for digging] The development of a tool called an adze, used for woodworking, was essential to building these permanent settlements. The people who lived here domesticated pigs and dogs; there is some evidence that they learned to cultivate silk. Now, let us move to Eastern Europe and a settlement called Tripolye in Ukraine. This is the earliest settlement of another early agrarian society - the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture. Cucuteni-Trypillian settlements were quite large, some with populations over 10,000. These settlements were the first to be organized into streets and city blocks. One reason Cucenteni-Trypillian settlements were so large and sprawling is that farmers tilled the land until it was depleted of minerals, and then had to clear new farm land, pushing the boundaries of the settlement outward. While people in Europe, Asia, and the Americas were learning to farm plants the Gunditjmara, an indigenous hunter-gatherer group in Australia, farmed eels [Map of Australia, Gunditjmara 6,000 BCE - present]. The Gunditjmara learned the migration patterns of the eels and constructed dams to create artificial ponds in the wetlands where they lived; then used stone fish traps to catch enough eels to feed more than 10,000 people. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES AROUND THE WORLD Overall, most scholars would agree that the development of agriculture was an advance in human history. Agriculture created the foundation for the formation of societies and civilizations. The growth of societies meant that new achievements became possible.

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Take a look at the map above. Notice how there are certain areas that are green? Now, look more closely. What do those green areas have in common? That's right; at their center is a thin, wiggly line indicating a river. This map of the Middle East and North Africa shows what is called the Fertile Crescent and the Nile River Valley. The Fertile Crescent is also referred to as the cradle of civilization. All life needs water, and, in the ancient world, these two areas had an abundance of water that would annually overflow the riverbanks and flood the surrounding region. Animals would teem around these areas for the water and the rich foliage that comes with a river that floods and leaves fertile soil for plants. The abundance of animals would have drawn the earliest humans, who saw a ready food source. But, hunter-gatherers would have noticed something else. These areas were also a source of lush natural gardens. Gathering seeds and nuts would have been pretty easy in such a lush environment, but so would collecting and eating the nourishing plants that grew naturally along the rivers, such as barley, wheat, and even date palms. And, gathering plants is a lot easier, not to mention safer, than chasing down wild animals! As people adapted, they sorted out how to save seeds and replant the naturally occurring plants that were suitable for eating. Thus began an agricultural society! What are some of the main characteristics of agricultural societies? How did the various agricultural societies develop around the world? Let's investigate the archaeological

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sites of Mehrgarh, Pakistan; Banpo, China; Tripolye, Ukraine; Chilca Valley, South America; Jericho, Southwest Asia; and Gunditjmara, Australia, from 10,000 to 4,000 B.C. Archeological evidence from these sites helps to answer questions about the social, economic, religious, and agricultural characteristics of farming societies. For example, excavation of artifacts, such as jewelry, pottery, and greenstone amulets, hints at religious rituals. The location and position of skeletons suggests ideas about death and burial rituals. Stone tools, diggers, and scrapers provide evidence of different agricultural methods. SHOW TRANSCRIPT Agricultural Societies Around the World [Map of Southwest Asia, 10,200 BCE - 8,800 BCE] The earliest permanent human settlement is believed to have been at Jericho in Southwest Asia, about 11,000 years ago. Settlers there first began harvesting wild cereals, then progressed to true farming, thanks to an underground spring that provided water at the rate of one thousand gallons per hour. [Map of South Asia, Mehrgarh 6,500 BCE - 2,500 BCE] A couple thousand years later, the first farmers settled down in South Asia, at a place called Mehrgarh in modern-day Pakistan. The people who lived here did not have the benefit of an underground spring, so they learned to dam the streams that ran through the valley to trap rich soil and provide water for agriculture. They grazed animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats in the surrounding high country. [Map of South America, Chilca Valley 8,000 BCE - 5,000 BCE] On the other side of the globe, farmers of the Chilca Valley in South America began cultivating seeds around 5,000 BC. They learned to domesticate specific seeds for the wet and dry times of the year so they had successful crops for more of the year. They also learned to alternate their crops, allowing for the replenishing of minerals in the soil. Banpo is an archaeological site in the Yellow River Valley in China. This small settlement was populated about 6,000 years ago. It consisted of about 100 houses, surrounded by a defensive ditch. [A tool that looks like a hoe for digging] The development of a tool called an adze, used for woodworking, was essential to building these permanent settlements. The people who lived here domesticated pigs and dogs; there is some evidence that they learned to cultivate silk.

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Now, let us move to Eastern Europe and a settlement called Tripolye in Ukraine. This is the earliest settlement of another early agrarian society - the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture. Cucuteni-Trypillian settlements were quite large, some with populations over 10,000. These settlements were the first to be organized into streets and city blocks. One reason Cucenteni-Trypillian settlements were so large and sprawling is that farmers tilled the land until it was depleted of minerals, and then had to clear new farm land, pushing the boundaries of the settlement outward. While people in Europe, Asia, and the Americas were learning to farm plants the Gunditjmara, an indigenous hunter-gatherer group in Australia, farmed eels [Map of Australia, Gunditjmara 6,000 BCE - present]. The Gunditjmara learned the migration patterns of the eels and constructed dams to create artificial ponds in the wetlands where they lived; then used stone fish traps to catch enough eels to feed more than 10,000 people. The other significant achievement in the agricultural communities was the development and spread of language. Food production triggered the growth of agricultural communities that bear their language and lifestyle. Seven of fifteen ancestral language families have evolved from the two major agricultural centers of China and the Fertile Crescent. As societies grew in size and became more complex, systems of communication also had to change. Written and spoken languages made communication more effective. LET'S REVIEW! In this lesson, you have learned:  Archeological evidence provides insight into the social, economic, and religious characteristics of large agricultural communities.  A significant achievement in the agricultural communities was the development and spread of language.  The growth of agricultural societies meant that new achievements became possible.

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 There were reasons that some groups developed and accepted sedentary agriculture and others retained earlier, subsistence methods.  There is evidence of the differences between hunter-gatherer and agricultural communities.  There is evidence to characterize different agricultural communities in different locations between 10,000 and 4,000 B.C. In one sentence, describe the cartoon's message about early agrarian societies. WRITER economy was primary based on bartering since exchange of goods and services was done need by need. The steps in establishing agricultural society is Gather resource Find a land with water and climate that will sustain the crops that you plant Decide what materials, animals, or foods are in the area and which ones you would like to grow Operate and control the agricultural process Make a profit and trade with the other people in your civilization. Choose all that apply. People may have chosen to become sedentary because _____. surplus food meant others could learn different jobs plows were easier to make than spears farming created surplus crops to survive winter large groups were safer large department stores emerged Choose all that apply.

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Five characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies were _____. people lived in one place healthier and better diets few social changes trash located in one spot little problem with spread of disease more dangers from animals and accidents more surplus food few technological changes Choose all that apply. Five characteristics of agrarian societies were _____. rapid technological advances less leisure time extra food during winter less social organization freedom to work different jobs disease did not spread easily a high-protein diet depletion of the soil Choose all that apply. Some of the artifacts that hint at religious rituals include _____.

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jewelry crosses pottery sacred books Significant developments in the sedentary agrarian communities include which of the following? Select all correct answers. The population grew. There was a consistant food source. Burial rituals were evident. Language developed. War began. n 100 words or less, describe the steps to establishing an agricultural society, according to the lesson. WRITER Agricultural societies developed from the hunter gather societies as generations of knowledge, domestication, and tools were implemented. almost every agricultural society existed near a clear body of water, provide rich soil, waterholes for animals, vegetable, and tree growth. gathered societies to begin creating sedimentary ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// // 17. Quiz: Life Centered on Agricultu UCS Adult Ed World History A – THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN SOCIETY QUIZ: LIFE CENTERED ON AGRICULTURE

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How did the receding ice age help with the development of agrarian societies? More animals appeared after being stuck in ice. Warmer climate created better growing conditions. Desert regions disappeared. The idea of farming took shape in many areas of the world. How do we know this? Archaeologists have excavated different regions with findings of very early agriculture. Ancient records from different regions show agricultural and animal domestication drawings. Recent languages have ancient words for domesticated animals and plants. Carbon dating of seeds reveals ancient genetic structures. Choose all that apply. Some of the things archaeologists study to gather information about early agrarian societies are _____. manuscripts of growing patterns tools pollen grains horticulture animal and human remains Choose all that apply. Some of the artifacts that hint at religious rituals include _____. jewelry crosses pottery

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sacred books greenstone amulets Choose all that apply. Four characteristics of agrarian societies include _____. more leisure time more social organization easier spread of disease surplus food low carbs diet fewer technical advances depletion of the soil Choose all that apply. Population growth and the domestication of plants and animals brought on new cultural changes, such as _____. gender inequality greater need for protection emergence of new social classes less complex religious beliefs less wealth overall What is meant by the term aquaculture? planting water building dams and canals for agriculture

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cultivation of water animals, such as eels and fish new name for a whale Match the vocabulary term with its meaning. 1 . subsistence the process of settling down in one location 2 . agrarian the condition of managing to stay alive when there is little food 3 . domesticate the middle period in the development of technology 4 . Mesolithic Age to tame plants and animals 5 . Neolithic Age an era known as the New Stone Age 6 . sedentary societies based on agriculture Choose all that apply. What are some of the characteristics of the six agrarian societies mentioned in this chapter? control of water through dams or canals little protection from outsiders advanced ideas or beliefs on death and burial no advanced farming techniques evidence of metal tools and weapons very little trade with the outside world many buildings used for a variety of reasons 6 1 4 3 5 2

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Choose all that apply. Evidence of more sophisticated religious beliefs includes _____. buildings constructed for public purposes placement of human remains crosses on buildings embalming rituals Choose all that apply. Four characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies are _____. people were nomadic rapid social changes took place diseases spread easily from herd to herd healthier diets few technological advances more dangerous lifestyle Choose all that apply. Evidence of climate changes and conditions that affected early societies are gathered from _____. written records ice core samples tree rings maps

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/////////////////////////////////////////// REVIEW As you study world history, be aware that there are patterns running through the halls of famous people and vast civilizations. Hopefully, you'll realize that the patterns governing history also appear in the lives of individuals, including yourself. You have probably heard the statement, "History repeats itself"; and so it does. Hundreds of empires and civilizations mark the time of the human race. The basic fears and joys of early humans are the same ones we feel. Yes, the setting is different, but the feelings are passed down from generation to generation. Ultimately, the goal is to discover the patterns and apply them to your own life. In this lesson, you will review material from the unit while recounting the most important concepts thus far, which include: OBJECTIVES  Understand the biological and cultural processes that shaped the earliest human communities.  Understand the processes that contributed to the emergence of agricultural societies around the world.  Know how to analyze chronological relationships and patterns.  Understand the historical perspective. VOCABULARY agrarian societies based on agriculture archaeology the study of the lives of early human communities through the examination of t artifacts objects made by humans that are unearthed by archaeologists domestication ability to alter the makeup and/or behavior of plants and animals to make them humans

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font a type design or setting headline a title or heading at the top of an article or page historical method the collecting, classifying, analyzing, and interpreting of data history the human record of people and their relationships hunter-gatherer early society where people hunted and gathered food linguistics the study of language pattern observable tendencies of a person or group primary source a document that was produced during the same time period as the historical su ratify to sign or give formal consent to a document making it valid salient most important or noticeable secondary source a document produced some time after the historical subject of study took place sedentary the process of settling down in one location HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES The history of early humans is obscured by a lack of written records and few artifacts . Much of what we know comes from fragments of skeletal remains, the heads of tools and weapons, and pieces of pottery and jewelry. In addition, science has learned some things about ancient climates through the study of geology, tree rings, and ice samples. Much of what has been learned is a matter of conjecture and has spawned numerous debates over the years as to what it all means. This is an important reason for

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anthropologists and archaeologists to utilize the historical method when studying ancient people and societies. The six steps of the historical method are: 1. collection of data; 2. classification of data; 3. analysis of data; 4. interpretation of data; 5. synthesis of data; and 6. reporting conclusions. Historians must have a certain degree of character. It is always a temptation to interpret evidence along the lines of one's own perspective. For example, if you grow up being taught that orange juice tastes bad, you may never try it for yourself. From your perspective, orange juice is something to avoid. If a historian has the preconceived idea that certain things happened a certain way because that is how he learned it, he will naturally apply that knowledge. In the process, he might make a critical mistake in his interpretation of the evidence. It is important, therefore, to make sure thorough research using the historical method as a guide is done before reaching any conclusions. Whenever possible, primary sources should be studied. When they are not available, secondary sources are useful for making intelligent observations about the past. When clear answers cannot be found, then the information must be treated as theory rather than fact. ANALYZING CHRONOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS AND PATTERNS Although it can be difficult to piece together the history of early humans, there is enough evidence to paint a fairly clear picture. For example, when excavating a site, it is not uncommon to find ruins built upon older ruins. Both yield artifacts from their era, giving archaeologists a panorama of a people's history. Soil samples can be taken from each level, and this helps to determine what people ate and what climate conditions were like at the time. Archaeologists can also establish a time frame for locations by comparing information from a number of archaeological digs around the world. Characteristics from one site

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may be very similar to another, which helps to determine that both existed at about the same time. When there are several layers of ruins at a site, this enables scientists to fill in events between eras. Perhaps they come across a fossilized tree and can tell by the tree rings that a prolonged drought struck the region long ago. A geological layer in another area indicates a time of flooding or a thickness of ash from a volcano. It is important to note that scientists who study the human race's past use information from a variety of disciplines in order to come up with a theory about ancient events. They often compare findings, and through these comparisons, a picture emerges. In the process, a chronological sequence and pattern can be firmly established. Only then are scientists able to make intelligent guesses as to ancient events and the effects they had on early humans. Finally, it needs to be pointed out that as technology changes, so do the tools used for research. As the tools become more advanced, better information about the past can be gathered. That is why a theory believed to be true for many years can later be found to be wrong. Remember, there are no written records of early humans' walk upon this earth. Still, we do know the basic details of the human journey, the hardships early people faced, and the victories they won as they used their superior intelligence to survive PROCESSES THAT SHAPED THE EARLIEST HUMAN COMMUNITIES Our knowledge of early humans is incomplete due to a lack of records. However, much has been learned about our ancestors through information they left behind on their journeys. This information includes bone and stone tools or weapons. Here is what we know for certain, based on the information gathered thus far.  It appears Homo sapiens originated in Africa.  Over the course of time, they migrated around the rest of the world.  They were hunter-gatherers who hunted wild game and picked plants for food.  Variations in environment and climate caused them to either settle down for a time or move to other locations. This movement brought them to Asia and Europe, and eventually to the Americas.

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It appears that people developed more sophisticated tools as they migrated. This is only natural as they learned how to secure food for survival. Tools and weapons began as handheld items and progressed to spears and arrows. People also learned that numbers meant safety, so small groups joined forces and became mobile communities. When they arrived at a location with an abundance of meat and edible plants, they settled down. They may have stayed in one place for many months or even years before moving on. Climate would have played an important role in how long they stayed in one location. As the ice ages grew or receded, these early people had to adapt to the changes. They learned that animal skins protected them from the elements. They also learned to use every part of the animals they killed. This included using the bones as weapons and tools. Death was probably an event that had quite an impact on the tribe. It appears that early people developed a sense of understanding about what death meant and the loss suffered. This is supported by the discovery of ancient burial sites. It is not at all uncommon to find articles of jewelry, tools, or flowers buried with the body. The discovery of fire became the first great leap for humans. With fire, they could stay warm, cook, and protect themselves from wild beasts. PROCESSES THAT CONTRIBUTED TO THE EMERGENCE OF AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES We now know that at some point during the journeys of early people, they came across vast regions where there was an abundance of food and water. Here, they settled down completely. The switch from a nomadic to sedentary lifestyle was gradual. This change was also accompanied by the shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture as the means for providing food. As more and more people settled down, agrarian societies were born. In these cultures, people learned to domesticate wild animals, which provided a year-round supply of meat. With larger and larger groups living together, knowledge and learning were greatly increased. As a result, technology took a giant leap forward with the inventions of more advanced farming techniques and weaponry. Shelters became more sophisticated as

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sod houses were constructed. Humans learned to control water through the use of crude dams and canals. Language was eventually born out of these societies. With many people living so close together, it became important for them to be able to communicate. The evolution of language paralleled the growth of agrarian societies. Linguists believe a "mother" language originated somewhere in Eurasia, although this is speculation. At any rate, the development of language and communication set the stage for the civilizations that were to come. It is believed that languages developed from simple sounds to symbols representing specific things. These would, in turn, take on simpler forms such as letters. From the beginning of the human race's time on Earth up to the present, we have been on a journey of growth and self-discovery. This pattern of failures and successes has made us unique from all other species. We build upon the knowledge learned by the previous generation just as they did before us. LET'S REVIEW!  There are six steps in the historical method: 1. collection of data; 2. classification of data; 3. analysis of data; 4. interpretation of data; 5. synthesis of data; and 6. reporting conclusions.  Interpretation of data is based on one's perspective.  There are two sources that historians gather from—primary and secondary.  There are differences between hunter-gatherer and agrarian societies.  You've learned the definitions of the following words; agrarian, archaeology , domesticate , linguistics , and sedentary.  You have learned about the evidence archaeologists and anthropologists rely on to determine the age or chronology of ancient artifacts.  Match the vocabulary term with its meaning. 1 . agrarian act of adapting plants or animals for human use 4

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2 . archaeology societies based on agriculture 3 . artifacts the study of the lives of early human communities through the examination of their remains 4 . domestication society where humans hunted and gathered food 5 . hunter- gatherer the process of settling down in one location 6 . sedentary objects made by people that archaeologists find Choose all that apply. Examples of primary sources would include _____. diaries fictional works artifacts human remains scholarly works Match the vocabulary term with its meaning. 1 . historical method a document that was produced during the same time period as the historical subject being studied 2 . history observable tendencies of a person or group 3 . linguistics a document produced some time after the historical subject of study took place 4 . pattern the collecting, classifying, analyzing, and interpreting of data 1 2 5 6 3 5 4 6 1

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5 . primary source the study of languages 6 . secondary source the human record of people and their relationships Choose all that apply. The steps of the historical method include: analysis of data theories of data synthesis of data reporting conclusions being biased about data Interpretation of data based on one's own perspective can lead to ________________. Blind acceptance Educated belief A hypothesis Preconceived ideas How can an historian acknowledge personal bias yet stay true to the historic method? An historian may keep asking more questions, keep searching other sources, and keep writing. New evidence through primary sources may make information clearer. The historian may acknowledge their perspectives on the study and use other narratives. 3 2

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Readers must acknowledge their own biases of history as they read as well. We know for certain that early humans were first _____. farmers sailors hunter-gatherers fishers The first great leap for humans was _____. fire stone weapons domesticating animals domesticating plants The evolution of language paralleled the growth of _____ societies. agrarian hunter-gatherer industrial nomadic /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// T 20. Test: The Beginnings of Human UCS Adult Ed World History A – THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN SOCIETY TEST: THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN SOCIETY Choose all that apply.

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The historical method uses what six elements? collecting data interpreting data drawing conclusions based on biases analyzing data drawing conclusions based on evidence using secondary sources only classifying data reporting xdata Choose all that apply. Three early forms of written communication were: hieroglyphs. petroglyphs. alphabets. grunts. cuneiform Match the vocabulary word with its meaning. 1 . history the human record of people and their relationships 2 . culture a group of people with common practices, activities, and interests 3 . society all the knowledge and values shared by a society 1 3 2

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4 . pattern societies based on agriculture 5 . agrarian the process of settling down in one location 6 . sedentary observable tendencies of a person or group The first species of early humans to travel outside Africa was _____. Homo erectus Homo sapiens Homo habilis Neanderthals Choose all that apply. Three characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies were: people moved around a lot trash was spread out over a large area diseases spread quickly little surplus food was available many major social changes took place Choose all that apply. The two main types of sources historians use to gather information about the past are _____. maps artifacts primary 5 6 4

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secondary How did the domestication of plants and animals affect agrarian societies? Write your answer in a paragraph of at least 125 words. WRITER People farming and domestication .traced ice age thawing of northern Europe warm ,ice,change as forest. It is believed that a mother language developed somewhere in _____. Africa Eurasia Europe Asia The age in which early humans made tools is called the _____. Paleolithic Age Early Modern Age Bronze Age Iron Age Choose all that apply. History is the story of the interaction between _____. people cultures environment civilizations ideas

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Prehistory can be described as _____. what happened last year what happened millions of years ago the time prior to the use of written records Choose all that apply. Three things that affect a historian’s perspective on past events are _____. upbringing honor and fame political views friends religious views Diseases spread more easily in agrarian societies due to which of the following? Hunter/gatherers didn't live in sedentary groups. Climate changes meant more bacteria were available to impact humans. Living in societies meant living closer to other people and sharing resources in close contact. Living in close proximity to animals exposed people to new bacteria. Match the vocabulary term with its meaning. 1 . archaeology symbols used to represent objects 2 . anthropology pictures carved out of stone 3 . linguistics the study of human language 4 cuneiform the study of people 4 6 3 2

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. 5 . hieroglyphs symbols used to represent sounds 6 . petroglyphs the study of the lives of early human communities through the examination of the remains An archaeologist studies _____. the origins of words the lives of early humans by examining artifacts the earth, rock forms, and strata early human culture and development compared to the present day Most of the evidence we have about early humans comes from _____. Homo erectus Homo habilis Neanderthals Cro-Magnon Choose all that apply. Two characteristics of agrarian societies were _____. less social organization more leisure time rapid technological advances more rapid spread of disease Choose all that apply. Three common characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies were _____. smaller-sized communities 5 1

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age and gender divisions little knowledge of plants and animals moving around a lot no understanding of tools and fire How does the interaction of people in groups affect the growth of societies? WRITER The development of language set stage for the civilization were to come development from simple sounds to symbols specific things, human race's time on earth up to the present. Choose all that apply. What are the three most important reasons for studying history? recognizing patterns memorizing dates, people, and events connecting the past to the present revealing past contributions of civilizations making sure history repeats itself Place the species in the order in which they appeared on Earth. first: second : third: fourth: fifth: Australopithecines Homo habilis Homo erectus Neanderthals Homo sapiens

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Historians are concerned with accuracy of their writings and readings but are also aware of __________. inability of authors to know every angle of every story biases, perspectives, beliefs, and a variety of other differences history being told by one person at a time no one being totally accurate, as hard as we try Agrarian societies were based around _____. iron tool making agriculture fishing and hunting industry Choose all that apply. Examples of primary sources would include _____. letters commentaries artifacts fictional literature According to one major language theory, how did different groups develop their own languages? by trading tools and goods with other communities by developing words for tools that were unique within their communities by coming up with their own language systems by conquering groups they met and bringing them along as slaves

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In at least 150 to 200 words, explain how language was transmitted and evolved. WRITE People living together learning were greatly increased language was eventually born out of societies many people became important to be able communicate evalution of language growth of agrarian societies. The steppes of Ukraine and southern Russia are important for what reason? They are considered the birthplace of language. It is where horses were domesticated. It is where farming communities first began. It is where cuneiform was first discovered. Choose all that apply. When rivers overflowed their banks, what would have happened in the Neolithic Era? Wild animals would have come to drink. Vultures would have circled looking for ready food sources. The first humans would have followed the wild game. Plants would have naturally grown. The ground would have dried up quickly. It would have gotten too crowded along the river. Farming communities would have taking advantage of the bounty and established habitations around them. Qualitative analysis includes _____. Select all that apply. meaning making

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statistics storytelling asking "why" the “what” question According to anthropologists, why did planting crops lead to the rise of a political class? With economic stability came the need for warriors. The more settled a community was the more they needed a form of monetary exchange. As food became more plentiful, people were freed up to serve as community leaders. The crops planted could be used to trade with other cultures. As settlements developed, leaders emerged to help organize and regulate these budding civilizations. In 100 to 150 words, give your opinion on why agricultural communities settled where they did. WRITER Agricultural settlements ,Cata Huyuk in Turkey in west bank ,show types of defense early agraian societies built. What role did wild animals play in the establishment of agricultural communities? WRITER Wild animals are sheep, goat, agricultural development hunter gather societies generation of knowledge rich soil waterholes begin creating sedimentary.

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Change climate like forest meadowland . larger group living together as technology giant leap forward. /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// GLOSSARY AND CREDITS History is, quite simply, the study of people. In this course, you will look at people from around the world and across time. In learning about them, you will also learn why the study of history is important to us today. You will discover that there are connections among historical events in our world; connections that link all people together across time and space. Once you understand what the study of history is all about, you will be able to apply this knowledge as you examine the history of the world's people. In this unit, you will look at some of the characteristics of our early ancestors. Throughout the lessons, you will trace the history of humanity from the formation of nomadic groups to the creation of societies. The information in this unit will provide you with the foundation for learning about the historical events included in this course. OBJECTIVES  Understand that the study of history is important.  Learn about the lifestyles of early people.  Explain why societies began to form. VOCABULARY agrarian having to do with agriculture; a descriptive word for societies built around agric anthropology the study of humans archaeology the study of the lives of early human communities through the examination of t artifacts objects made by humans and unearthed by archaeologists

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bias personal judgment based on unfounded evidence or belief chronological order an arrangement of events in the order in which the events took place civilization a highly developed society collective Learning the ability to learn and transfer knowledge to others communication the process by which we exchange ideas and information contemporary concerning the present time culture all the knowledge and values shared by society cuneiform a language that used symbols to represent objects domestication the process of humans taming and controlling the breeding of animals that had font a type design or setting geology the study of the earth, especially its rock formations headline a title or heading at the top of an article or page hieroglyphs symbols used to represent sounds hominid belonging to the family Hominidae, which includes modern humans and their ex hunter-gatherer early society where people hunted and gathered food linguist a person who studies language linguistics the study of language Mesolithic Age the middle period in the development of technology between the Paleolithic an Neolithic Age an era of human history beginning about 12,000 years ago, marking the emerge

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societies; often called the New Stone Age pattern observable tendencies of a person or group petroglyphs pictures carved into stone primary source an original source of information created at the time an event occurred ratify to sign or give formal consent to a document making it valid salient most important or noticeable scientific method the processes and procedures by which we acquire information secondary source an authoritative source of information that interprets and/or analyzes a primary sedentary the process of settling down in one location seriation the procedure of developing a chronology of arranging remains at a site that pro pattern of development society a group of people with common practices, activities, and interests stratigraphy the branch of geology that studies the various layers of rock and soil subsistent describes the condition of managing to stay alive when there is little food

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unit 1

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