GEOL 1021_Assignment 2_template.docx.pdf (annotated).8193572.1668223420847
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Dec 6, 2023
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GEOL 1021 Understanding the Earth I
Assignment 2
__ / 86pts
Module 2
Learning Activity 2.2
●
Compare ionic and covalent bonding.
(6pts)
Ionic bonding
Covalent bonding
Bond between a metal and a
non-metal atom
Between two non-metal atoms
Formed by the attraction of
opposite charges
Formed by the sharing of electrons
High melting and boiling point
Low melting and boiling point
Often are solid at room
temperature
●
List the basic structures of silicate minerals.
(6pts)
-
Basic structural unit of silicate minerals are tetrahedron, and are in forms
of chains, rings, sheets, and frameworks
●
Explain the limitations of using colour as a tool in mineral identification.
Cite and explain any three other physical characteristics that might aid in
mineral identification.
(6pts)
-
The limit is the color of the minerals can be exhibited by impurities, not by
the minerals themselves
1-2
1-3
1-6
1-7
-
Three other physical characteristics used to identify minerals are:
+
Hardness: Scratching minerals against common standard objects
on the Mohs scale to measure mineral’s resistance using. This test
provides rapid and rough approximation of hardness on the field
(Roth, 2022)
+
Luster: Test the ability to reflect light of a mineral. Luster can be
seen as a first step to see whether it is a metallic luster or
non-metallic luster. The test is useful in narrowing the variety of
minerals as metallic or non-metallic, and further into more detailed
subdivisions without any complex devices (John, 2022)
+
Cleavage: Minerals can be broken down by stress in areas where
the bonding is weakest into planar direction. This test can provides
the crystal inner structure and symmetry of a mineral (Oxford
University of Museum, 2022)
-
Citation:
1.
John. Step-by-step guide: Testing mineral's luster like a pro.
How to Find
Rocks
(2022). Available at:
https://howtofindrocks.com/how-totest-mineral-luster/. (Accessed: 26th
September 2022)
2.
Oxford University of Museum. Cleavage and fracture.
The Learning Zone:
Mineral Detectives
Available at:
https://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/thezone/minerals/detect/fracture.htm.
(Accessed: 26th September 2022)
3.
Roth, T. Lecture 2: Earth Material.
D2L
(2022).
Rocks
●
Describe and draw the basic concept of the rock cycle.
(6pts)
-
Mantle rocks are partially melted and become magma. Magma through
solidification at Earth’s Surface becomes extrusive igneous rocks, while
through crystallization on Earth’s interior becomes intrusive igneous rocks.
They are then metamorphosed into metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic
rocks can partially be melted back to magma
-
Two types of igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks can be lifted up and
exposed to weathering and erosion. The fragments are transported and
sedimented into sediments, later through lithification become sedimentary
rocks
-
Sedimentary rocks can be lifted up and repeat the sedimentation cycle or
can be metamorphosed into metamorphic rocks
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Igneous Rocks
●
What are the two major kinds of igneous rocks? How do they differ?
(6pts)
-
There are two major types of igneous rocks: extrusive and intrusive
Extrusive
Intrusive
Solidified of melted material on
Earth’s surface
Solidified of melted material under
Earth’s surface
Can have aphanitic texture of
coarse-grained crystals, <1mm in
diameter
Can have phaneritic and
pegmatitic texture of fine-grained
crystals, >1mm or >1cm in
diameter
Indication of rapid cooling of lava
Indication of slow cooling of lava
Metamorphic Rocks
●
Name a foliated rock and a non-foliated rock. Explain the conditions under
which each kind of rock forms.
(6pts)
-
A foliated rock is slate. It is formed under extreme changes in temperature
and pressure metamorphism of shale sedimentary rock in a large area.
The rock is intensely transformed throughout the process
-
A non-foliated rock is quartzite. It is formed under high temperature and
low pressure metamorphism of sandstone in a small region. The rock
does not go through deformation
Sedimentary Rocks
●
What is lithification? Describe the different processes of lithification.
(6pts)
-
Lithification is a process in which sediments are transformed into
sedimentary rocks. Different processes of lithification are
+
Compaction: Tight packing of sediment grains and pressure of
overlying sediment reduce the pore spaces between grains
+
Cementation: The grains are bound together by CaCO3 or silica
cement
+
Crystallization: Cause the development of crystals by organic or
inorganic precipitation from solutions
Module 3
Learning Activity 3.2
●
How are igneous rocks classified?
(6pts)
-
Classification is based on the relative position of magma and the Earth’s
surface
●
How and where do magmas form? Why do melts migrate upward?
(6pts)
-
Magma is formed by the partial or complete melting of solid Earth’s mantle
rocks
-
Magma comes from the lower crust and upper mantle of the Earth where
temperature and pressure are high, usually around regions with tectonic
activities and hotspots
-
Decompression melting allows the solid Earth’s mantle rocks to melt as
they migrate upward to a lower pressure layer as a part of convection.
●
What do the terms felsic and mafic mean? Name a rock example of each.
Also named an ultramafic rock and an intermediate igneous rock. How are
these rocks different?
(6pts)
-
Felsic means rich in Feldspar and Silica. Example is granite
-
Mafic means rich in Magnesium and Ferrous Iron. Example is basalt
-
Example of ultramafic rocks is peridotite
-
Example of intermediate rocks is andesite
-
Ultramafic rocks are rich in magnesium and iron, and poor in silica,
potassium and sodium. While intermediate rocks are neither rich in
magnesium, iron or silica, but are rich in sodium and calcium. The primary
minerals in ultramafic rocks are pyroxene and olivine. The primary
6-2
6-3
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minerals in intermediate rocks are sodium and calcium-rich feldspar. The
look in ultramafic is dark color while in intermediate is salt and pepper
Learning Activity 3.4
●
Name the different types of volcanoes. Describe and illustrate one type.
Illustration is worth 2 pts.
(8pts)
-
Three types are: Cinder-cone, Stratovolcano and Shield
-
The Cinder-cone volcano has a steep slope and is the smallest. The width
is 1200m and height is 500m. It is the simplest model of volcano
●
Give a few examples of what geologists have learned about the Earth’s
interior by studying volcanoes and volcanic rocks.
(6pts)
-
The Earth’s interior boundary: Volcanic rocks can be analyzed by their
composition, how they formed, and in which conditions such as pressure
and temperature. The difference in pressures and temperature make
some of the minerals change, making the composition of igneous rocks
7-2
different. This gives insight about the boundary between two layers in the
mantle
-
The Earth’s internal mechanism of convection: Magma, which is partially
molten mantle rocks, can rise to the surface. And through vents and
fissures, to erupt as lava. We can have the insight of the convection
mechanism that help the magma to rise to the surface through volcanism
●
Why does volcanism occur? How is volcanism related to plate tectonics?
(6pts)
-
Volcanism occurs because of the internal heat of the Earth. Magma,
through mantle convection, rises up to the Earth’s surface, through vents
and fissures to be erupted
-
Process of seafloor spreading is from basaltic lava erupting along
mid-oceanic ridges at divergent plates. At subduction zones of plates,
convergent boundaries. Shield-shaped volcanoes can form at the location
of hotspots. Water can also circulates through volcanic rocks and magma
to form heated rising water as hot springs and geysers on the surface
Learning Activity 3.6
●
What is the elastic rebound theory and how does this theory explain the
occurrence of an earthquake?
(6pts)
-
Elastic rebound theory states that there is a build up of elastic strain in
rocks when fault moves, and the energy is released as seismic waves
-
Elastic rebound theory suggests when rocks are stressed and deformed,
energy is stored and they bend. When there is excess of stress in inherent
8-2
8-3
strength, the rocks rupture causing faulting and ground shaking. The
release of energy creates seismic waves radiating in all directions,
causing earthquakes
9-1
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Notes
Annotations created using iAnnotate on the iPad.
Branchfire • www.branchfire.com
not covalently bonded minerals
1-2
Also, ionic bonds are much weaker than covalent bonds, resulting in cleavage planes.
1-3
More detail needed on the tetrahedron.
1-6
single vs double chains
1-7
Yes, by texture and origin, but also by mineral and chemical composition (felsic vs mafic).
6-2
Melts migrate upwards as they are less dense - decompression melting increases a magma’s buoyancy.
6-3
volcanic dome, calderas
?
7-2
Also, magmas undergo fractional crystallization and evolve as they migrate through volcanic systems (magmatic differentiation). 8-2
More detail needed. Lava also forms volcanoes at ocean-continent convergent plate boundaries, giving rise to volcanic mountain belts. And, at ocean-ocean convergent boundaries, magmas give rise to volcanic island arcs. 8-3
After an earthquake, the cycle of energy buildup towards a new earthquake starts over.
9-1