midterm notes (1-10)

o Ex. Tundra, Hudson Bay Lowland, Boreal Forest, Carolinian, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lecture 2: TUNDRA • Over the past million years, ice covered all of Ontario several times =glaciation o The ice age is called the PLESTOCENE • “Granite” or “Gneiss” + HCl = no effervescing o Ex. “Marble” + HCl = effervesces • Water is a very powerful abiotic force: it forms habitats by moving rocks, is a habitat itself, modifies land temperature, and creates wind. o Continues to change ON o Leaves evidence of change with smooth rocks, randomly placed rocks “ Erratic ”, and large scratches “ Striations ” formed by ice ICE AGE OF ONTARIO • Ice covered ON millions of years ago multiple times. It was 2km deep and slow moving. o Ice moves back North, then after the weight of the ice is gone the land again = “ Isostatic Rebound ”. This has caused ON to be getting gradually larger. o Ice destroyed all life and scoured rocks o Glaciers are caused by small drops in average temperature over millions of years. o Snow buildup>snowmelt o The bare rocks in Ontario left by glacial, was first colonized by LICHENS. Beginning of colonization In Ontario • “ Lichen ” was th e first plant to grow back; directly onto rock. It is a symbiotic relationship between fungi and algae . Initiates “ Succession ”, change in area which is the continuation of more plants to be able to grow. The fungus provides a house for the algae and algae provides food via photosynthesis. o “ Crustose (cluster) Lichen” colonizes on bare rocks (It is a “Pioneer Species= COLONIZERS ”) are like crust. ▪ Provides a base for other plants to grow like “ Moss ” = pioneer species (colonizers) ▪ Grows by wind blowing material and building up o 1) “ Foliose Lichen ” are leaf -like in appearance o 2) “ Fruticose Lichen ” are stock -like or fruit-like in appearance o 3) “ Arborial Lichen ” grows on trees o Liches and moss are pioneer species (COLONIZERS) that physically trap wind-blown particles and provides a site for other living things to grow. • Water and plants breakdown rocks and dissolve it into soil. • Plants and animals came from “ Glacial Refugia ” – took refuge other places and then came back after glaciation.

o Polar bears in summer go to Sand Dunes are formed by coastal sand deposits. Give bears dens and shelter. • American Dune Grass is a pioneer species that colonizes sand • HORNED LARKED is NOT a pioneer species because it also exists in RAISED or STANDARD BEACH RIDGES OF TUNDRA: • Raised Beach Ridges are important habitats for animals and plants including polar bears= DRY IN NATURE> o The ridges offer protection for Polar Bears and other nesting sites for Arctic Terns that feed along the coast and rivers. o They are often robbed of fish by = Parasitic Jaeger. • Coastal flats and dunes have “ Halophytic ” plants – salt tolerant plants. o They have thick leaves to retain (salt glands) water and offer wind protection as well as salt glands. Ex. “Seaside Lungwort” o HALOPHYTIC PLANT have fleshy leaves for storing water and for protection. o “ Goosegrass ” is halophytic plant and looks like a lawn . ▪ It is food for geese. • There are also Beach Ridges far away from the water. o They formed by being left behind the isostatic rebound. o This is from when the Tyrell Sea use to be there. These are called “Stranded Beach Ridges”. ▪ They are important sites for “ Arctic Fox ” so they can have dens and to dig down. ▪ Adaptation of foxes include: • Small extremities • Dense fur in winter • White in winter ▪ Stranded beach ridged provide nesting for shore birds ( “ Sandpipers ” and “ Plovers ” ) • Nest of SEMIPALMATED PLOVER is found in the beach ridges. • Nest of HUSONIAN GODWITS is found in the beach ridges. • Nest of DUNIM is found in the beach ridges. • Nest of DUNLIN on sedge and moss hummocks is found in the beach ridges. • Nest of LEST SANDPIPERS is found in the beach ridges. • When the tides go out, the vast MUDFLATS provide important feeding sites for sandpipers and plovers. • Plovers have different bills for probing, which allows them to go to different lengths, causing them to not compete for food = niche partitioning= dividing food based on bill length.

• Insect gleaning birds that don’t nest on the ground. • Migratory song birds (some eat seeds- common redpoll )- north finch • Yellow warbles= all around the province. • Blackpoll warbler is a northern nesting species confined to the Tundra and Hudson Bay lowland forest regions. • American tree sparrows nest at the edge of the tree line. Mammals in the tundra: all have short tails (Allen’s rule) , plump bodies (Bergmann’s rule) , and short ears (allen’s rule) . • Meadow vole undergoes the greatest population cycle of any mammals in the world. o The population cycle greatly affects the numbers of their predator. The small mammals are food for arctic fox and short eared owls. • Northern bog lemming • Meadow jumping mouse = Long tailed mouse found in tundra ecological region-hibernatort o One of true hibernators • Groundhogs= hibernator too. • Snowy owls don’t nest in ON - they come to Ottawa and tundra= most northern owls in the world. • There is an endemic (meaning a species (plant/animal) that is only found in one area in the entire world) called the “ Hudson Bay Endemic = Lepage Wild Flax ”. • The tundra is the most northern and most inhospitable ecological region in Ontario. • Northern boundary is: edge of the tree line (the tundra) • South lies in the boreal forest. o With continuous canopy forest. • West lise more boreal forest • East lies: James Bay. HUDSON BAY LOWLAND (ecological region)= james bay • Barriers: To the SOUTH/WEST= boreal forest (canadian shield) , to the North = Tundra, to the east = James Bay • There are NO roads, but lots of water. • Unlike the tundra, the Hudson Bay lowland (HBL) forest region has some true forests- mostly • Its true forest /boreal forest is consistent of “ Black Spruce ” and “ Tamarac k”. • It is lined by sedimentary “ Limestone ” and is very flat • 60-150m in elevation (considered low), therefore there are still strong winds, and it is very cold • Temperatures between -3 and -6C = short growing season with discontinuous permafrost • Land depression • Is still recovering from the effects of the glaciers.

• -2. carnivorous plants are another type that are known to grow here! o EAT PLANTS. -Example: Pitcher plants are carnivorous which use a 1. pit-fall trap, Bladderworts use a 2. Suction traps vacuum like apparatus that suck up little animals along with water and eventually get rid of the water. Flowers that use a “sticky” trap, an example of this are 3.adhesive Sundews . • The great sundew only found in lowland . • -As the matt of moss gets thicker, shrubs grow on it! • Dominant shrub= Speckled Alders are good in Nitrogen deprived environments; their special adaptation are root nodules that are full of bacteria that fix nitrogen that the plant can then use. • Black Spruce grows on older mounds and hummocks . They often spread by layering , aka when the braches touch the ground and then another plant grows from that! However, they only grow as stunted trees I the muskeg itself. - peatland changes over time. Eventually the moss fills to the bottom of the pond. - trees grow larger on top of the GROUNDED MAT. Eventually a spruce forest forms. • As a peatland mat thickens and succession (to spruce) progress, diversity drops. • The youngest edge of the mat, the sphagnum lawn , supports the greatest diversity of plants. o 1. At the outer edge of the water lines there is more nutrients available for plants whereas in other parts of Peatlands there is a lot of moss, it is nutrient deficient. o 2. Sunlight is more readily available because there is less plants at the waterline o 3. There are more insects at the water/shoreline as well so most of the o carnivorous plants grow sphagnum lawn as well! • Most of the carnivorous plants grow in the edge of the mat. o Because there is more water/insects. Is peatland the final climax? - is black spruce at a climax condition in the HBL (aka when the forest is at a stage that it can replace itself)? It might be but what is more water comes in? Sphagnum moss would grow and could overtake the forest! So sphagnum moss can dominate and overtake!

Lecture 6: Why does the rivers in the HBL have a greater biodiversity in plants than the muskeg does? There are more nutrients (oxygen, calcium because of the limestone is there and there is no clay/silt/sphagnum moss along the river because the river has current/moving water which acts like a barrier to the clay/silt. The change in water height as it rises/lowers in the spring/fall and the limestone in the muskeg is buried under the moss/clay/silt) - boreal snaketail-most common dragon fly in boreal forest. live in the rivers like the “ Attawapiskat River . -Indicator species for each part in Ontario is important The HBL - shrubs do grow there even though there is a lot of water in the HBL Example: Ninebark is a shrub that really likes calcium. It is found primarily only the rivers in the HBL. Example: Willows , it was also found in the Tundra. Common group that form shrub groups along the riverbanks Example: Wolf-willow (Silverberry) they primarily grow along the river sides in the HBL. It likes exposure to calcium as well as cold environments Example: orange-crowned warbler is a bird that thrives in the HBL environment, especially in the northern parts especially along the river edges. There are deciduous trees in the HBL but only up higher along the ridges where the water drains more easily. Example: Poplars . However, the carnivorous trees still dominate such as Black spruce trees . Species associated along the river edges in the HBL Along with more plant diversity comes with more animal diversity Example : black-backed woodpecker – loves the black spruce trees, also found in Algonquin park and the boreal forest. They also eat a lot of insects Northern range limit – how north a species of plant or animal will go/can survive

o “ Rock Polypody Ferns ” can only live here (it opens up possibilities for other plants & animals to live in the HBL) – when there are populations that are greatly distanced from where they are usually found = “ Disjunct Population ” ▪ Can come from south and the arctic. ▪ “ Greenland Sandwort ” -disjunct population of plant grow on Sutton Hills because its cold, cliff(y), and the rock type is right for it. - Greenland Sandwort, Rock Polypody, Alpine Brook Saxifrage grow here and nowhere else in the HBL. - because of high elevation? -The Sutton Hills is the only site in the HBL for Rock Polypody . Separated by great distances from the main population which is much farther south. -When you have a small group that is very far separated from the main population – Disjunct populations → example it rock polypody . Their spores can travel thousands a miles which can land eventually in a habitat that can survive. They are normally found on the outskirts of the HBL. -Example: Greenland Sandwort Is not a southern plant and grows on top of the Sutton hills. This is also a disjunct population. Shows that when you have the proper habitat that aren’t commonly found there making the Sutton hills very interesting. Lecture 7: Boreal Forest • 25% of ontario in Canadian shield physiological region. • Continuous forest everywhere. • Old rocks (1-3 billion) o Most common mineral includes silica and Quartz. ▪ Hard and acidic. -most common minerals are hard like silica and quartz making them more hard and generally acidic. Meaning they break down less easily where the limestone breaks down more readily. -Southern boundary = Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Forest region (characterized by a mixture of northern and southern trees white Pine and Red Pine which are virtually absent in the Boreal Forest. • Needle arrangement in groups of pines can tell you what type of pine it is. • The red and white one is absent from the boreal forest. •

summer in years of dramatic increases. In low years, they may only have 1 litter a year. They can also breed at 1 year old. o Causes of their male/female crash includes: ▪ Starvation ▪ Diseases ▪ Predation (red fox, fisher, American marten, Great horned owl) • MAJOR OREDATOR IS THE LYNX. – in a cycle of 10-11 years. One year behind because it is a response to all the food supply increase. ▪ Stress induced hormonal changes are also important. • Spruces and balsam fir needles are food for a very famous caterpillar. • Spruce budworms actually enhances the survival of spruce. o Spruce budworm: grow up to become moths. ▪ Killed large areas of boreal forest by eating leaf. ▪ Also affects the survival if birds. Lecture 8: boreal forest continues. - t he ratio of balsam fir to spruce is: 7:1. Fir outseeds the spruce. • The budworm outbreak occurs, and kill the tree above, then they go down and start attacking the fir causing a 1:1 ratio of fir and spruce. • Spruce budworms actually enhances the survival of spruce. o And affect the survival of birds known as BEDWORM WARBLERS. -Caterpillar becomes a moth, a spruce budworm , but its caterpillar eats the needles of coniferous trees . The forest industry cares about their species population because they can quickly/unexpectedly kill large populations of balsam fir. This overall enhances the survival of spruce as they mainly affect the balsam fir trees. BIRDS AFFECTED BY BEDWORM WARBLERS: -The budworms also affect the survival of birds . The three species of warblers 莺 are known as “ budworm warblers ” because of their preference of the budworms 1. Tennessee warbler - actively gleans at outer branches at all heights. 2. Cape May Warbler – actively gleans caterpillars at tips of branches at the top of trees. 3. Bay breasted warbler - slowly works tangles of needles mainly in middle of trees. -the three of them eat in different ways but they can all eat in different spots that feed in different manners – = NICHE PARTITIONING.

-During budworm outbreaks , the warblers nest twice and young survive. They can nest twice in one summer which can exponentially increase warblers populations. - the abundance of these warblers from year to year reflects the abundance of budworm caterpillars in their habitats. • bird in the boreal forest is the white-throated sparrows also benefit from budworm outbreaks because they can also nest twice in one summer! • Most pairs have one tan (Tan-striped) and one white sparrow have a better chance of having successful offspring. The sex of the type of sparrow doesn’t matter. o The tan stripped morph – better at providing and defending young. o The black/white stripped morph – aggressive and better at defending land/territory/nests. FOOD RESOURCES IN THE BOREAL FOREST: a. The three types of insects that benefit from dead trees in the boreal forest are: 1. Bark beetles are tiny and eat the wood under the bark. 2. Their larvae are known as flat-headed borers . Their adults are called the Jewel Beetle . They chew flat meandering lines under the bark of wood. 3. Longhorn beetles (grubs) chew and bore deeper into the wood. Named after their incredibly long antenna. They have very strong mandibles. Their adults eat the pollen from flowers but their larvae don’t. 4. They all undergo niche partitioning. b. Black-backed Woodpeckers that strip the bark off of trees, especially spruce trees, and eat the beetles and other insects underneath – known as the woodpeckers of Northern Strippers : 1. Black-backed woodpecker – much longer snout allowing them to get to things that No. 2 below cannot get access to. It can get the long horn beetles. 2. American three-toed woodpecker – much shorter snout so it goes after the bark beetles and the jewel beetles that are close to the bark. -They both undergo resource partitioning. c. Trembling aspen (poplar) is also an important source of food. 1. The bark of trees – porcupines and the beaver as they can dine on these trees so they are found in the boreal forest 2. The leaves are food for small herbivores – a. Leaf miners live inside leaves and eat between the membranes of plants. b. Serpentine Miners are often found in poplar leaves and create a twisty pathway of where they eat which eventually become moths. C. Luna moth caterpillars also eat poplar leaves. The d. Canadian Tiger Swallowtail caterpillars also eat poplar leaves. - Butterflies find minerals in wet sand and mud puddles – puddling. Eats the leaves of poplar trees like birch, can occur in large numbers over huge areas – the

e. Forest Tent Caterpillar . They eat all leaves on shrubs and tress in some years large tracts of forest are defoliated because they move from tree to tree as they are in large numbers – known as defoliation which have been known to cause many accidents as if a million of them cross a road it creates a slick and it is very common in roads throughout the boreal forest. Outbreak – when the caterpillar eats multiple trees in a row. When all trees are defoliated. 3. Flesh flies are drawn to caterpillars which can help control the population numbers of the caterpillars. As the caterpillars become more common in time so do the flies/ parasites . Lots of caterpillars means lots of predators. 4. Fire can be a natural control in the boreal forest, and it is an integral part of the Boreal Forest ecology . Which can be a good thing because it opens the door for new species to come in the area if fire wipes out a lot of trees. Fireweed is a type of plant that thrives in recently burned areas and they get there from aerial dispersal via the wind. Elderberry and blueberries don’t come in by wind but by animals come in inside their waste. Black bears are attracted to the berries so then this creates a good habitat for them too. 5. Dead trees are an important resource because they become popular with the three types of beetles . Beetles have smoke detectors in the base of their legs= jewel beetles eat dead wood. 6. Some longhorn beetles detect pheromones of bark beetles . Woodpeckers leave vacant holes that are overtaken by cavity adopters such as: - Tree Swallows - Eastern bluebird - small owls (names do not matter) – boreal owl -common boreal forest ducks: golden eye and hooded mergansers are ducks in the boreal forest that do this as well= cavity adopters . – • Northern Flying squirrels are cavity adaptors as well. • Northern hawk owls are found in old burns. → so many cavity adopters in the boreal forest means there are competition for cavities. -Burns eventually support shrubs like alders and small trees like poplars . Within a few years a new forest begins to grow. Poplars are also able to reproduce vegetatively by cloning . Eventually you get a poplar grove. Older poplar stands in the Boreal Forest are almost always growing in what was a burn. - fireweed thrives in recently burned areas. Which are later on joined by other plants such as elderberry and blueberries. - fireweed seeds are dispersed by wind . Bears benefit from fires! - in fire areas the blueberries have a habitat to grow in. blueberries are sun-loving trees. Therefore, fire creates excellent foraging habitat for bears by providing them with food. - smoky the bear is a liar and a traitor. - eventually shrubs like alders and small trees like polars arrive called succession – which is why they benefit from fire. - poplars are also able to reproduce vegetatively by cloning.

- older poplar stands in the boreal forest are almost always growing in what was a burn. - Poplars are shade-intolerant but spruces and balsam firs can grow in partial shade • Fire also helps ducks indirectly o Allows “Beavers” to make ponds f or their – 1.to eat safely, 2.safe access to resources, 3.easier to transport material, and 4. water is deep enough not to freeze on the bottom. ▪ Beaver ponds are a type of nutrient sink (makes water rich). ▪ Nutrient sink makes a lot of lilies to grow. Creating water shield. These benefit the moose be it has sodium in the water plants. • Moose gets sodium once a year. • -They are important in regards to nutrients because their ponds are nutrient rich. The incoming water brings nutrients from the soil which goes to the bottom of the pond. They deficate in the pond so the nutrients never leave the pond. Their ponds are nutrient sinks because over time, nutrients become abundant. Plants are then able to grow and ponds become a little water garden → White water lily and the bullhead/yellow pond lily are very common. They also eat the plants and other animals (small and large) eat the plants as well → water lily leaf beetles . • • - Moose benefit from beaver ponds because of the abundance of Na in the water plants, by drinking the water and possibly even eating the plants. • Why are beavers important for Canada? o Because of the fur trade to create hats! o Beaver currency. Lecture 9 Monday February 6 th 2017 Boreal Forest Animals -water is home to dragon flies and damsel flies because they like still currents because there is no flowing water in beaver ponds. The young grow in the water and then climb out when they are ready to break out of their shell. - beavers tail is multifunctional and made of scale. Used for • Steering as they swim • Counterbalance • Release heat by pumping blood to it and release because if its big surface. • Counter current heat exchange at the base of tail. • Usead as a prop so they can set- third leg. • Communication- loud slap for danger.

• When they groom , the tail is out in their front giving access to oil gland down and hinged legs to be mobile and go up. • Midges larvae live commonl y in the mud in beaver ponds and as adult flies form mating swarms. • SKIMMER : the main group of dragonflies that live in beaver ponds. o Big bods dragon flies. • Orange teeth = IRON • - American Toad likes beaver ponds for mating because they lay their eggs there NOT freeze-tolerant . • Wood frogs are freeze-tolerant so they can survive winters in the boreal forest. - Leopard frog are not in the HBL because NOT freeze-tolerant . but since the boreal forest is warmer, they can live there year long (permafrost). -warmer water = more species = greater biodiversity → true for every animal in Ontario that goes south - Mink frogs have a strange song and are common in the boreal forest. - What amphibians benefit from beaver activity? frogs - Mink , part of the weasel family , have their own little niche. They like to hunt on the shoreline, they like the contact zone between land and water. They have partly webbed feet and can walk on land as well as swim. They can ’ t swim the same strength as otters, so otters eat in water instead and catch fish on the water. RIVER Otters (aquatic weasel) use the top layer of ice that froze to catch prey through the holes of ice on the top of the water. Water are nutrient rich habitats, the can support a great/large diversity of animals over time. - Beaver pond duck : Hooded Merganser , generally the females stay year long while the males only are there in the winter. So, the females are there alone in the summer along with if they have young. - beaver meadows : once dam breaks and the pond drains, lot of nutrients are available at the bottom of the pond. The first plants to colonize are then sedges (windblown seeds). • Two animals that uses beaver meadows are: o Wolves- beaver metals for their young to play (cribs ). o Moose - mating sites. - Once a dam goes up a new pond, trees get flooded and die. ▪ Home for insects, woodpeckers, tree swallows, small owls, golden eye ducks, and hooded merganser.

- Beaver ponds are important source of nitrogen and phosphorus. Beaver ponds also maintain water tables. which are key in droughts. -Most importantly, beaver ponds increase the biodiversity of any region especially the boreal forest which is why beavers themselves are so essential to the boreal forest. Twice a year the dams get overrun with water, current come in where the water is usually still, bringing oxygen down to the bottom of the pond where there is usually no oxygen. When oxygen comes down, more decomposition occurs (usually in spring when snow melts and there’s lots of new rainfall or in the fall when there is normally a lot of rainfall). Oxygen activates different bacteria that works on different plant material. This creates turnovers throughout the year as they flush different nutrients. Nitrogen and phosphorous are then flushed downstream where normally the boreal forest lacks nitrogen and phosphorous most of the time. This enriches many other sites, not just the ponds themselves. Indications that it is a brand-new dam: - Conifer trees turn colours because they drown and die - Not big so not all water is able to be held up – it will be bigger over time - Black peck woodpeckers eat the newly dead trees so they are usually there for fairly newly established pond - Many birds use the materials from beaver ponds, especially new ones, for building nests and to feed → great blue heron does this. They commonly build nests on the trees that are still standing in newly established ponds, once the tree falls over, this creates a new small habitat for small plants (sundews) and frogs, etc - Dead trees in beaver bonds create beautiful scenery along with beautiful reflections on the water (his favourite part of looking at a beaver ponds) The boreal forest has thousands of lakes -they have so many large lakes because of glaciation . There are multiple smaller lakes instead of one very large one because of the lay of the land (the Canadian shields) that creates lots of elevation changes, creating many smaller lakes. -Lakes in the boreal forest are richer in nutrients than lakes in the HBL because of climate- warmer , this is because the species biodiversity is higher (even plants so more plants are rotting, etc) as well as there is more developed soil on land because of the lay of the land (Canadian shield) that created lakes that are nutrient washed in rich.

-Lots of fish, especially trout , in the boreal lakes because the waters are nutrient rich -there are lots of fish-eating birds in result to the abundant number of fish located in the boreal forest → lots of Osprey (mentioned in a previous lecture) and Bald Eagles (used to be rare in the Boreal forest when DDT was legal) - hooded mergansers are found on beaver ponds and common mergansers are found on lakes in the boreal forest and common loons. CURRENT LAKES OF BOREAL FOREST: -lotic system/current – lots of fast moving current (streams, rapids). - Net-spinning caddisflies and Black Fly larvae : benefit as they are filter feeders. o Have labral - . dragonflies live in moving water. Boreal Snaketail is common- because their nymphs are designed for it. lentic system/current – no current ex: like beaver ponds o Alot of mosquitos. ISLAND OF BOREAL FOREST: - They are there because some of the rocks are a bit higher- physiography of land. - Islands are important because they offer fewer predators. - In the island xanthuria=calcium presence. From birds themselves. ANIMALS THAT NEST IN BOREAL ISLAND: - Common loons - Herring gull- exclusively - Common terns - Moose- gives birth in highest point of island. freshwater sponges – feed via filter feeding in freshwater currents net-spinning caddisflies – build tubes, hide in the bottom parts of it. Current comes in, nutrients from the incoming water goes to the bottom and the little animal eats them. Can attach to branches and rocks. They filter feed. Black flies – larvae are filter feeders, the boreal forest is a superb habitat for black flies because of the abundant amount of freshwater current. Most common insect group in the boreal forest.

They hang in the current on a rock by attaching themselves to it. Labreal brushes (spelling?) is what they use for filter feeding. -Fast water is home for the Clubtail Dragonflies such as the boreal Snaketail because they like fast water. They are found on the rivers/currents in the boreal forest. WESTERN/PRAIRIE BOREAL jack pine most common. • Manitoba warm winds come into Ontario • Lower elevations of 350m above sea level • Not much thick soil – exposed rock with lichens and a lot of “ Spruce ” trees • Rock is 2.3 billion years old & pre-cambian (old) – the water of the “ Lake Agassiz ” had a big effect • The driest & warmest part of the B.F. because of the warm prairie winds = longer growing season- because of the hot prairie winds that come in from west. • Low precipitation. • More wildflowers compared to the HBL – “ Pale Corydalis ” (common) • “ Green Ash ” = common tree, a variety of “Red Ash” • “ Prairie Crocus ” = Indicator flower Species for the Prairie Boreal • A number of prairies of western boreal species or varieties are found here. o 1)green ash is a prairie variety of red ash o 2) Prairie Crocus is found in Ontario only in the western boreal - indicator secies o 3)Black Spruce and Jack Pine (short needles with 2 needles per pair) are dominant trees. BLASAM FIR IS RARE. o 4)The coniferous woods are habitat for boreal birds such as spruce grouse (eats spruce and jack pine needles), white winged cross bills , boreal chickadees , Canada jay, yellow-bellied flycatcher . More species of warblers nest in the boreal forest than anywhere else in North America . Specifically insect gleaning warblers such as Bay-breasted Warblers. o A few prairie birds’ nest in the western boreal – Black billed Magpie . • “ Yellow Bellied Flycatcher ” is found in the Prairie Boreal (eats insects easier because its camouflaged yellow and green) • “ Black Bellied Magpie ” commonly found out West is found here too -as the glacier melted, lake Agassiz, covered most of the western part of the boreal forest. Since there is a lot of wind there, water greatly affected the rocks in the area. The lake took away a lot of the soil that was there prior to glaciation. -Western boreal is the driest and warmest part of the boreal . The least amount of precipitation → important!

-There are many more wild flowers in the Boreal forest than in the Hudson Bay Lowland -Pale corydalis is a common wildflower on the Canadian shield - COUGARS - have been reported from the western boreal- big hunters. - Least Chipmunks are Boreal Forest chipmunks. - spruce grouse in the western BF eat jack pine needles, spruce needles. - jack pine cones are not eaten by red squirrels and crossbills cannot open them. - jack pine cones can be only opened by 50 deg C temp to open cones. • Jack Pine fire dependent? Lecture 10 Wednesday February 8 th 2017 Features of Lakes -islands are very common on the lakes in/on the Canadian shield . Islands are important because they serve as refuge for animals that lays their eggs on islands. They are important for species populations and species interactions because the lakes provide a safe space for certain animals. They are safer because the following species benefit: - wind that blows down the tree is called BLOWDOWN. Lake Superior Boreal Forest - lake superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world – larger than 82000 square km’s and up to 400m deep and a volume 12 100 cubic km’s -Lake superior moderates winter temperatures because of lake effect – a big body of water takes a long time to warm up and then cool down. It depresses summer temperatures giving coastal summers and the winters temperatures are moderated and overall elevated. The north shore of lake superior has some of the highest elevations in Ontario – ~563m above sea level Western Prairie Boreal Forest - red squirrels and the Least Chipmunk – they’re smaller -Weasels, specifically Martens, Moose, wolves, and another carnivore is a cougar ! 美洲狮 - Jack pine is very popular and abundant in the boreal

Fire in boreal forest: - spruce grouse birds benefit immensely thanks to the jack pines – their cones are very hard! Crossbills and red squirrels can’t open them, they have a very strong resin that holds it together. They open up from fire and it need to be 50 degrees Celsius or warmer in order for that to happen. • Fire opens the serotinous cones (50) – an adaptation for seed dispersal via fire – meaning they are fire adapted trees. They are self replacing trees. • Delayed opening = fire burns off the duff layer and exposes the mineral soil fir the jack pine seeds serotinous cones. Fire re-creates jack pines, which creates habitat for spruce grouse. o Sharp-tailed grouse also benefits from fires-north western. ANIMALS (birds, mammals and insects) THAT BENEFIT FROM FIRE: - fire is a major ecological force in the western boreal. - on average they happen every 50-100 years. - Kirtland’s Warbler (endangered) – are jack pine dependent and fire dependent . Their growing restrictions are they only feed on ones between the age of 5-15 years old and 2-5 metres tall. - Kirtland’s Warblers do not nest in the Western Boreal (yet) but are Jack Pine-dependent birds. - Sharp-tailed grouse also benefits from fires-north western. - spruce grouse birds benefit immensely thanks to the jack pines - Black spruce is another dominant coniferous tree in the boreal forest – have 2 kinds of cones/ the first are those that open up and the cross bills can eat their food. The second are ones closer inwards to the tree and rarely open up – this meaning that black spruce have semi-serotinous cones . WHY IS THERE SO MANY FIRES IN western BF?: 1) low amount of annual precipitation. 2) High number of lightening storm in the western boreal forest. 3) Relatively flat land and winds from the prairies. 4) Conifers are full of resin and burn well. - no muskeg in the western prairie boreal forest because its not a wet environment - peatlands that are really well developed because the glacier left very early. -Recall the youngest part of a peatland (the Sphagnum lawn) has the greatest diversity of plants

**** ****lesser yellowlegs ( / northern shrike ** indicator of HBL ) found nesting in summer at HBL, while, greater yellowlegs (** indicator of peatlands) are found in peatlands all through Ontario-boreal forest. ANIMALS OF WESTERN BF: - Emeralds are associated with the boreal forest and eat mosquitos-mostly around black spruce. - western prairie boreal forest has a red-sided form of a Garter snake and - painted turtles (hatchings are freeze-tolerant (1 year) , allowing them to be able to live in the more north in Ontario than other turtles) • the ones from Woodland Caribou with distinct designs underneath/on the bottom part of its shell. NORTHWESTERN PARKS/town: - Red Lake is a town that has rocks that are more than 3 billion years old, most likely the oldest in Ontario (world). - wilderness park-no roads/development/fires burn wildly. - Woodland Caribous Provincial Park and Wabakimi Provincial Park are two wilderness parks in Ontario. There are more peatlands in wabakimi than woodland caribou because: • 1) the prairie wind effect is weaker. • 2) more precipitation: 65-70cm annually (10cm more than the woodland caribou park) - Canada mayflower , bunchberry and clintonia/bluebead lily are typical understory plants in the boreal forest. They have northern and southern plants because of the wind/temperature differences. - Pink Lady’s -slippers are common in acidic coniferous forests. - eastern white cedar - can also be found here and not northern. Woodland Caribou Provincial Park – wilderness park ▪ Affected by winds from the west. ▪ Bunchberry, Canada Mayflower, Clintonial Bluebead Lily . Found in the Boreal Forest of the coniferous woods. • “ Pink Lady’s Slippe rs ” are common in acidic coniferous forests / • Islands are safer sites for animals because… o They are surrounded by water o “Common Loon” benefits because they nest on shorelines and choose the safe sites on the island.

o “ Common Terns ” nest there too along with “ Herring Gulls ” o Mammals also give birth on islands ▪ Caribou, Moose Wabakimi- wilderness park • More Peatlands o The prairie wind effect is weaker o More precipitation 65-70cm annually (10cm more than Woodland Caribou) o Wind is still a factor – some reliefs along the lake shores • No logging in Wabakimi (a wilderness park) • Fires burn off the tough layer all the way to the mineral soil o Fire leaves many standing dead trees, which attracts more insects, more woodpeckers, more cavity adopters. o Fire opens the cones of Jack Pines and Black Spruce ▪ Logging does none of theses things fire do (except more exposure to sun) ▪ Logging also removes calcium from the ecosystem. ▪ Park like Wabakimi are important remnants of the Boreal Forest since they wont log. - Webaimi has some relief but there is a lot more relief in another part of the p\ boreal forest…… SUPERIOR BOREAL • Along lake Superior is the Superior Boreal area of the Boreal Forest • Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world o Area = 82,000km^2 o Depth = up to 400m (average = 149m) o Volume = 12,1000 km^3 • It moderates winter temperatures- warmer. • It moderates summer-depress temperature (coastal summer). • The north shore of Lake Superior has some of the highest elevations in Ontario. o Because it is 563m above sea level SUPERIOR BOREAL CONT. • Sleeping Giant (1247 feet=380m) -Higher the altitude (vertical rise) brings a decrease in temperature. • Lake Superior effects + elevation= very cool summer temperatures . Typical boreal forest species present are: - Spruce grouse - Boreal owl

- Moose. • Biodiversity is HIGHER here than other parts because of the variety of Igneous & Metamorphic rock types. o Ex. “ Subarctic Flora ” because of the colder conditions they can grow along the north shore & on the islands. (xanthoria=lichen). ▪ CALCIPHILIC FLOWERS : “ Ninebark ”, “ Shrubby Cinquefoil ”, “ Kalm’s Lobelia ” • These calciphilic flowers exist because of Volcanic rocks like “ Basalt ” - which are BASIC in pH. • Basalt islands are one of the reasons why the biodiversity is greater in the northern boreal forest. ▪ “ Ontario Goldenrod ” mainly grows on basalt islands . ▪ Disjunct Population/glacial relicty – really separate from the main population ex. “ Butterwort ” • On lakes of late superior/basalt you find Butterwort. ▪ “ Glacial Relict ” population stayed south after the glacier retreated because the conditions stayed cold ex. “ Butterwort. ” • “ Beach Pea ” have coastal affinities along the shorelines. • “ Least Chipmunk ” eating “ American Dune Grass ” is a coastal plant that grows all the way down to the Superior Shoreline (HBL and James bay)- called disjunction population/glacial relict . • “ Sparrow’s Egg Lady’s Slipper ” found along rivers of HBL but also found on Lake Superior (Disjunct & Glacial Relict) • “ Rock Polypody ” IS NOT a glacial relict because its main population is Southwards • Other unusual plants are found along the North shore of Lake Superior o Ex. “ Pitcher Thistle ” – only found on a few shores of the Great Lakes ▪ “Great Lakes Endemic” or “Endemic” – found in a localized part of the world • Some section of the Superior Boreal are farther South , warmer , and have a longer growing season than the Northern Boreal – more soil that allows “ Star-Nosed Moles ” to live here • Some elements of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Forest Region can be found here • “ Pukaskwa National Park ” is the one National Park in the Superior Boreal – glacial relicts • “ Cliffs ” provide areas for subarctic and Alpine species “ Alpine Woodsia ” – Disjunct, glacial relict o Also a habitat for birds – “ Common Ravens ” (seeing white by a cliff patch = “Whitewash”, the feces), “ Peregrine Falcon ” (reintroduction, “Hacking Boxes” – where they raised the young falcons before they were old enough to fly away) ▪ Cliffs = important for “ Hawks ” to migrate by using the “Thermals” to fly up