NativeEducationInClassroom

"Not at the Expense of Their Culture": Graduating Native American Youth from High School Author(s): Kristen Campbell Wilcox Source: The High School Journal , Summer 2015, Vol. 98, No. 4 (Summer 2015), pp. 337- 352 Published by: University of North Carolina Press Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44077795 REFERENCES Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44077795?seq=1&cid=pdf- reference#references_tab_contents You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at https://about.jstor.org/terms University of North Carolina Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The High School Journal This content downloaded from 132.174.251.53 on Fri, 27 Oct 2023 21:17:01 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

"Not at the Expense of Their Culture": Graduating Native American Youth from High School Kristen Campbell Wilcox SUNY, University at Albany Kwilcoxl@albany.edu What kinds of challenges do educators face in increasing Native American high school graduation rates, and what kinds of adaptations to a traditional high school are under- stood as necessary to achieve this outcome? This case study explored these questions as part of a larger multiple case study that investigated practices and processes related to high school graduation rates. It focused on educators' attempts to increase Native American student graduation rates in a high school with typical gaps in graduation rates between Native American students and white students. Data collected included teacher and administrator interviews and documentary evidence. Framed by socioecological theory that focuses on relationships between district, school, and classroom processes and practices, study findings revealed that adaptations to improve Native youth gradua- tion rates included (1) offering personally-relevant, real-world, experiential, and inter- disciplinary learning experiences aligned to students' own learning goals; (2) adapting school schedules to students' lives outside of school; (3) prioritizing developing students' sense of worth in contributing to their communities and societies ; (4) providing flexi- bility regarding absences, (5) offering effective supports that emphasize connecting to an adult ; and (6) partnering with families and other community members. Implications for future research and practice are discussed in light of the findings. Keywords: Native American, indigenous, high school students, graduation rate, drop out. Prologue Huddled in the New Notions School1 principal's tiny corner office in a brick ranch donated to the Quill Valley district, I waited to interview a science teacher. I knew from the first day of data collection that this site visit (one of 15 planned for a multiple case study investigating processes and practices related to graduation outcomes for diverse youth) was different. I discovered in an interview the day prior that the district superintendent had spearheaded an effort to provide an optional model to the tradi- tional public high school in an attempt to increase Native American student gradua- tion rates. I intended to focus this interview on what was unique to the approach they were using at the New Notions School and how it differed from what was done at the Junior-Senior High School that I visited the day earlier. After a few opening questions, I asked the New Notions science teacher (one of four content-area specialists in the school) what she and others were doing to engage Native American students. She responded without hesitation: I believe that one of my goals as an educator is to find a way to give Native students the opportunity to earn a diploma and it not be at the expense of their All program, school, and district names are pseudonyms. © 2015 The University of North Carolina Press 337 This content downloaded from 132.174.251.53 on Fri, 27 Oct 2023 21:17:01 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

students do not make it to gra including reservations, rural 2008). As some scholars have no cerns regarding the maintenan Faircloth & Tippeconnic, 2010 Related Literature Some scholars have aimed to uncover the cultural factors that might explain different school performance outcomes between Anglo/ white and Native American students. Brady (1996), for example, explored a common theme in this vein of literature that related to what was termed "cultural discontinuity" (i.e. the concept that Native American students are culturally deficient or culturally deprived). This contrasts with an alternative view - one that sees Native American youth as victims of dif- fering value systems that drive what occurs in traditional American high schools (Giles, cited in Bowker, 1992). Ledlow (1992) explained that cultural discontinuity explains "differences in the communication styles of the minority students' home and the Anglo culture of the school", that "lead to conflicts, misunderstandings, and ulti- mately, failure for those students" (cited in Brady, 1996). For this reason, some have proposed that it is important to integrate traditional Native American cultural practices and content related to Native American history into the curriculum (Guillory & Williams, 2014). This approach was investigated by Whitebeck, Stubben, and LaFromboise (2001) with a sample of 196 fifth- to eighth- grade Native children from three reservations in the upper Midwest. The researchers investigated a variety of factors in relation to Native American youth's academic performance, including age, gender, and lifestyle. Results suggested that as children learn to respect and strive to meet traditional Native cultural values, they are likely to comply with these values and exhibit behaviors that typify desirable attitudes and behaviors in not only their own communities, but others as well. Rather than viewing these behaviors as a sign of misalignment with school values, Native values and behaviors can be seen as translating well into students' behaviors in non-Native school environments. Other researchers have attempted to expand on cultural discontinuity theory by offering alternative explanations of academic performance gaps. For example, by comparing the experiences of Native American youth dropouts and those of their non-Native peers, Brady (1996) questioned the cultural discontinuity hypothesis and pointed to other factors that might explain academic achievement gaps such as "economic deprivation" (p. 15): a condition that they share with other youth, white and non-white. Brady claims that research pertaining to Native American students' dropout rates should shift in focus from emphasizing cultural mismatches of Native students in relation to Anglo school cultures to highlighting the qualities of teaching and administrative practices that promote Native student engagement and success in school. Similarly, Reyhner (1991) noted that little attention has been given to the deficits of the schools and teachers that can be viewed as pushing Native students out. In his review of the lit- erature, he discussed school system characteristics contributing to Native students' early leaving from school. These characteristics include the large impersonal spaces of many public schools, uncaring teachers, passive stand-and-deliver teaching methods, inappropriate curriculum, inappropriate use of tests, tracking, and a lack of outreach to parents and families. Recent literature has proposed recognizing Native youth needs and challenges (Garrett, Parrish, Williams, Grayshield, Portman, Rivera, & Maynard, 2014), reducing isolation from Native cultural and social events, enhancing coping mechanisms, and practicing the "noninterference principle" (i.e. showing respect 339 This content downloaded from 132.174.251.53 on Fri, 27 Oct 2023 21:17:01 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The High School Journal - Summer 2015 for others' choices) (p. 485) as im understand and support Native s A disconnect between what ed Native dropout rates and studen ture (Bridgeland, Dilulio & Mor survey responses from 259 Nativ ences regarding perceptions of t school personnel, students in s administrators tended to locali students - both stayers and leav factors. Brandt highlighted the ceptions and described how the teachers from providing feasible In another study, Stiles (1997) at and practices through examinin United States, and New Zealan Salient common features of th indigenous language and cultu local community, and fostering learning experiences. Stiles con programs imposed from the out programs adapted for indigeno language and cultural heritage w Theoretical Orientation While these studies have suggested that cultural discontinuity is an insufficient frame- work for capturing the ways that school policies, processes and educators' practices impact Native students' trajectories in high school, few researchers have utilized frame- works that take into account the relationships of these factors to graduation out- comes. For this reason, the current study is framed by socioecological theory (see Brofenbrenner, 1993; Wardle, 1996) to draw attention to the relationships of classroom instruction to school policies and processes and to how the latter relate to educators' understandings of the needs of Native youth and families in their communities. This socioecological framing offers a view of classrooms (microsystem), schools and districts (exosystem), and the broader community (macrosystem) as embedded and inextricably linked and wherein both factors that are proximal (classroom instructional practices) and distal (school and district policies and processes) impact individual and group behaviors. While this framework aligns with culturally relevant schooling (CRS) in that it takes into account the relationships between policies, processes, and practices and the success of diverse youth in school (Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; McCarty & Lee, 2014), it focuses centrally on the relationships between proximal and distal factors that span different, yet embedded, systems in which schools exist. The current study was therefore structured to investigate such relationships and was guided by the following questions: (1) What kinds of challenges do educators face in raising Native American student graduation rates, and (2) What kinds of adaptations to a traditional high school are understood as necessary to achieve this outcome? Method Sample This case study was embedded in a multiple case study investigating school practices and processes that relate to graduation outcomes. The current study focuses on a 340 This content downloaded from 132.174.251.53 on Fri, 27 Oct 2023 21:17:01 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The High School Journal - Summer 2015 as important aspects of explainin In the next phase of analysis, I ge nized the data further by parsing theoretical framework (i.e. socioe checking of the case study and so ings (see Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Findings This case study investigated how educators attempted to increase Native student graduation rates in a school district with typical graduation rate gaps between Native and white students. In response to the first research question (What kinds of chal- lenges do educators face in raising Native American student graduation rates?), study findings indicated that the greatest challenges included (1) finding ways to engage Native youth in the traditional high school curriculum, (2) providing pathways to credit recovery, (3) making strong connections to adult educators and other mentors in the community, and (4) partnering with parents. In response to the second research question (What kinds of adaptations to a traditional high school are understood as necessary to achieve higher Native graduation rates?), study findings included the following: (1) offering personally-relevant, real-world, experiential, and interdisci- plinary learning experiences aligned to students' own learning goals; (2) adapting school schedules to students' lives outside of school; (3) prioritizing developing stu- dents' sense of worth in contributing to their communities and societies; (4) provid- ing flexibility regarding absences, (5) offering effective supports that emphasize connecting to an adult; and (6) partnering with families and other community mem- bers. The first finding I discuss in the next section relates to how educators in Quill Valley dealt with issues of relevance and engagement. Academic Goals, Mission, and Priorities "There isn't a lot of talk about what our goals are." (Junior-Senior High School teacher interview) Practices and processes that relate to student outcomes such as graduation rates are often rooted in priorities, goals, and overall missions. These may be implicit rather than explicit, developed by adult educators or by students themselves (Galleta & Ayala, 2008). In Quill Valley, identifying goals was complicated by the need to achieve a balance between the past and the future in a culturally and socioeconomically hetero- geneous community. These contextual (macro-level) factors in turn made for a mingling of diverse priorities within the district offices, schools, and classrooms. As mentioned earlier, Quill Valley graduation rates included both the Junior-Senior High School and New Notions, yet the two schools differed in major ways in terms of organizing goals and priorities. For example, when asked about goals and priori- ties at the Junior-Senior High School, administrators' and teachers' most common responses centered on increasing students' motivation for learning in order to increase what they viewed as the corollary and ultimate goal: engagement in the classroom. This priority and goal, however, was juxtaposed against the belief that many Native students and their parents did not value school, and this resonates with the cultural discontinuity view discussed earlier. Some, such as the teacher whose interview is excerpted below, viewed this phenomenon as linked to a disconnect between the curriculum and students' everyday lives: There are still families in this district where kids still go home and work in the family business, on the farm, or where they own a small ice cream shop 342 This content downloaded from 132.174.251.53 on Fri, 27 Oct 2023 21:17:01 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

in town. I had a kid yester to go home and frost the c town. The priority is not go across the board. It comes do teacher interview) Others at Quill Valley saw the ciated with what was referred interview) that the Native stu reservation school. Overall, ed expressed a strong belief tha regarding school rules and sh classwork regardless of their outside of school. They also ex come to class and do their wor high school. Other priorities educators expressed in the Junior-Senior High School were related to providing academic challenges (i.e. college preparation courses) and keeping the most at-risk students engaged and on track for graduation. While overall gradua- tion rates had been typical for the general student population in comparison with state averages for other demographically similar schools to Quill Valley, teachers expressed frustration around the persistent problem of keeping the high-achieving and/or college-bound students engaged while keeping the at-risk students on the path to graduation. Quill Valley students identified as at-risk before they entered ninth grade were provided with a variety of options to engage them, as discussed below; nevertheless, they were still dropping out in large numbers, particularly the Native students. Some of these students were expressly targeted to attend New Notions where the mission, goals, and priorities differed from the Junior-Senior High School in a variety of ways. For example, at New Notions, educators expressed that first and foremost, their goal was to ensure that students see themselves as individuals who have value, worth, and something to contribute: "to help students find their passion and become lifelong learners," as one New Notions teacher described it. New Notions educators were consistent in expressing the belief that Native student motivation and engagement requires a reshuffling of priorities and begins with nurturing an ethic of responsibility for learning. This includes students setting their own goals for learning, recording progress, and assessing their progress as part of a community of learners and within a support network of teachers (called "advisors" at New Notions), the principal, parents, and the community members with whom they work in internships. Curriculum and Course Offerings The contrasts in priorities, mission, and goals between the Junior-Senior High School and New Notions are matched by quite different foci with regard to the curriculum. At the Junior-Senior High School, in addition to various levels of traditional state curriculum course offerings (e.g. Biology, Algebra, U.S. History, English Language Arts), an effort was made to add more rigor to the curriculum by offering more credit- bearing college courses. Over half of the senior class at the Junior-Senior High School were reported to take at least one of these 33 college-credited courses at the time of this study. Although some educators viewed the increased emphasis on such college-credit bearing course offerings with a strong sense of pride in giving stu- dents from a rural area a "step up," as one Junior-Senior High School teacher expressed it, these classes necessarily replaced others in the schedule. This shift 343 This content downloaded from 132.174.251.53 on Fri, 27 Oct 2023 21:17:01 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

instructional time centered aro an independent study model wi Also, instead of typical marki based and the second 10 weeks f These were taught workshop st At the Junior-Senior High Sc teacher-led and following a trad ment by exam. A teacher explai I teach ninth grade, and all thr on the state exit exams. We wi the state exit exams in the way A few teachers were reported t problem-based learning strategie ing college credit-bearing course exam questions. At New Notions, however, instr relevance, and rigor) as explaine We follow the three Rs- relatio philosophy in that order wit they are and make the decisio to the relationship piece, each with them through the four ye The three Rs are complemente approach. As an administrator science, and social studies - lea engaging in goal-setting and re with the necessary state curricu grade until they graduate, and students' projects. In addition, a "learning goals": Empirical re social reasoning. These compri teacher noted look similar to Common Core State Standards ( Policies toward Retention and Absenteeism The idea that all students should and can graduate with a high school diploma is not universally held by educators in the Quill Valley district. Some voiced concerns over what is not under the control of educators, namely the life circumstances of students and their families, as well as the perspectives they hold toward academics that impact what students do when they come to school and whether and how often they come. While there were differences in opinion regarding the approach to take toward stu- dents at risk of retention in ninth grade because of primarily academic issues, budget cutbacks had impacted the district's ability to provide extra support to avoid retain- ing. A district administrator explained the problem: I used to believe in retention and now totally reject it, but the challenge is that if you don't retain you have to support and with the budget as it is we have one less AIS [Academic Intervention Service] and one less special ed teacher and two fewer teaching assistants. Those are the people we were counting on to provide that support for kids who are still struggling. 345 This content downloaded from 132.174.251.53 on Fri, 27 Oct 2023 21:17:01 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The High School Journal - Summer 2015 Many factors related to whether "out of the control" of school pe that could be monitored and im example, were given access to an and performance. In addition, the attendance closely and sent notice The poverty you can't control; s dance you can impact and I reall it is hard to learn from the mis In addition to offering an online week reports, the Junior-Senior with very direct letters to paren schoolwork. If a student's traje the pathway toward successfull grade, the student was identified administrator explained that with absences would be identified a become involved, and once you s and attendance gets better." At the New Notions School, in co keeping students on track for gr understanding of the cultural tra ceremonies in the Native commun ditions around mourning loss dif a week or even a few weeks of s where they left off," as one adv graduate students in four years i Notions educators have to take s I don't think every student has damaged. We heal them and lo We are committed to keeping k if there's a student out there to get him a diploma. Transition and Intervention Supp The contrasts in supports for tr Junior-Senior High School and risk factors, such as absences, a school are in place at both the differences between the two are families are approached. When I got here, the focus wa maybe a little less about kids dropped out at early ages, (distr Administrators at the Junior-Sen against dropping out was to ease One school administrator expla Freshman 101 program (a one-day ing freshmen) and summer prog 346 This content downloaded from 132.174.251.53 on Fri, 27 Oct 2023 21:17:01 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The High School Journal - Summer 2015 of adaptations to a traditional hig come? In contrast with studies th or some other trait of schools or a socioecological perspective by l instruction to school practices relate to educators' understanding As this case study revealed, ma of the purpose of a high schoo be taught, how it should be ta members might engage with edu In the traditional Junior-Senior that point to central issues of in other studies (e.g. Azzam, 2 following can help Native stud relevant, real-world, experientia to students' own learning goals side of school; (3) prioritizing de their communities and societies; Figure: Factors related to Preve Societal Agjf Macr°svstem D Ä Brokered ' Intern hip or School and District partnerships with ® community ervlce Exosystem families t I Flexible school Effetti transition ' I Focus on individual and intervention 1 ■ 1 A- value and worth sypport 1 J* V V Teacher collaboration ' Y / | a J* V across disciplines Y / | respon ib «■ a ' 4 aa * J r™ / t ' 4 V aa »¡i * * y / ® Classroom f Y ' ' Microsystem Ì+ 8 '' Vfelem-based Differentiated ■ fi y/ Proximal Factors 348 This content downloaded from 132.174.251.53 on Fri, 27 Oct 2023 21:17:01 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

effective supports that emph families and other community When viewed through a socioec suggest that reducing Native d ing a different social ecology school staff viewing Native y deep histories and who requi schooling (CRS) (Castagno & B policy and process flexibility Sprague, & Tobin, 2012). This study responds to calls th the potential to reduce the num number who go on to graduate multitude of important context to the Quill Valley district, suc staff at the New Notions Schoo may have promise for improvin Epilogue Since anonymity of the Quill Valley district and school was promised in this study, a recent report investigating the graduation outcomes at Quill Valley cannot be cited directly here. However, in this report the New Notions School progress was outlined. The report, based on reviews of enrollment and graduation data, showed that the school had graduated 27 students in the five years since its inception and that the dropout rates had ranged between 15% in the second year of the school's existence to as low as 2% - certainly a more favorable outcome that what had been achieved in the Junior-Senior High School. References Azzam, A. M. (2007). Why students drop out. Educational Leadership , 64[7), 91-93. Balfanz, R. (2008). Do dropout factories really exist and if so what can be done about them? Paper presented at the American Educational Association Annual Meeting, New York. Bowker, A. (1992). The American Indian female dropout. Journal of American Indian Education , 31[ 3), 3-20. Brady, P. (1996). Native dropouts and non-Native dropouts in Canada: Two solitudes or a solitu Journal of American Indian Education, 35(2), 10-20. Brandt, E. A. (1992). The Navajo area student dropout study: Findings and implications. Journal of Indian Education , 31[ 2), 48-63. Bridgeland, J. M., Dilulio, Jr., J. J., & Morison, K. B. (2006, March). The silent epidemic: Pers high school dropouts. A report by Civic Enterprises in association with Peter D. Hart Research for the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Washington, DC: Civic Enterprises. Brofenbrenner, U. (1993). The ecology of cognitive development: Research models and fug ings. In R. H. Wozniak & K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Development in context: Acting and thinking environments (pp. 3-44). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Castagno, A. E., & Brayboy, B. M. J. (2008). Culturally responsive schooling for indigenous youth: of the literature. Review of Educational Research , 70(4), 941-993. DeVoe, J. F., & Darling-Churchill, K. E. (2008). Status and trends in the education of American Ind Alaska Natives: 2008. NCES 2008-084. National Center for Education Statistics. Faircloth, S. C., & Tippeconnic J. W, III. (2010). The dropout/graduation crisis among American Indian and Alaska Native students: Failure to respond places the future of Native peoples at risk. Civil Rights Project/Proyecto Derechos Civiles. Galleta, A., & Ayala, J. (2008). Erasure and survival: Creating a hiture and managing a past in a restructuring high school. Teachers College Record, 110 (9), 1959-1985. Retrieved from http://www.tcrecord.org/content. asp?contentid =15179 Garrett, M. T., Parrish, M., Williams, C., Grayshield, L., Portman, T. A. A., Rivera, E. T., & Maynard, E. (2014). Invited commentary: Fostering resilience among Native American youth through therapeutic intervention. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43{ 3), 470-490. Glesne, C., & Peshkin A. (1992). Recoming qualitative researchers: An introduction. White Plains, NY: Longman. 349 This content downloaded from 132.174.251.53 on Fri, 27 Oct 2023 21:17:01 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Appendix Mainstream Teacher Interview Interviewee(s) Name/Title: 1. Please restate your name and your position. 2. How long have you been working as the cinsert job title>? What attracted you to this district? 3. How would you describe the cname of> school's climate? What are the major challenges? What are the major successes? 4. To what do you attribute the school's graduation rates? 5. What are the main challenges you have faced in improving graduation rates in this school? 6. Please describe the focus of any academic goal-setting work done in this school over the past four years. How are academic goals developed in this school? Who is involved in the development process? How do these goals align with district goals? Describe any process your district/school has to monitor how well it is meeting its goals. 7. Describe any process your school has to develop and revise the curriculum. Who is involved in the development and revision of the curriculum? How are vertical teams involved, if at all? How are ESL specialists involved, if at all? How are special education specialists involved, if at all? Are there any ways your district attempts to coordinate instruction across schools? [If no) Why not? Please describe. 8. How would you describe high-quality teaching for students at risk of dropping out? What types of student work would be evidence of high-quality teaching? 9. How has the state accountability system impacted the instructional practices, mandated or strongly encouraged, in this school, if at all? Please provide specific examples. 10. Describe any ways you collaborate with other teachers and other colleagues. How is this collaboration supported? By whom and when? Can you provide an example of this kind of collaboration? 11. What professional development activities do you participate in? Please describe any that relate to at-risk students (e.g. students with disabilities or English learners) 12. What programs and processes do you currently have in place to improve gradua- tion rates in this school? [If programs] When were those programs implemented? Who developed them? Were you or other teachers involved in the development? How were they implemented? How is the effectiveness evaluated? [If no programs) Are there any other things you can think of in your school that may help improve graduation rates? 13. How would you describe the approach toward behavior management in this school? How is this approach supported by the district or school? 351 This content downloaded from 132.174.251.53 on Fri, 27 Oct 2023 21:17:01 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The High School Journal - Summer 2015 14. Describe any ways data are What kinds of data are collecte Who is responsible for collectin How do you use data? 15. Describe any specific interve How are determinations made? Which of these interventions occur at the district level versus the school or class- room level? How are you involved in this process? Can you provide an example? 16. Is there any additional information about efforts to assist students in achieving a high school diploma that you would like to share? 17. If you were to give other educators a sense of what is done in <name of school> to affect graduation rates, what would you describe? 352 This content downloaded from 132.174.251.53 on Fri, 27 Oct 2023 21:17:01 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms