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Learning Objectives by Topic, PSYC 4155 Mid-Semester Test 2 Important Note: This is NOT an exhaustive list. Anything on the class slides (or in the textbook on a topic that was covered in class) may be included on the test. This list does not go into sufficient detail to list every item you need to know. This is for guidance only . Topic 1: Attention Big Picture Questions: • Does attention affect perception? - Yes, there is evidence from behavioral and brain data. • Do all scientists agree on the best definition and/or model of attention? - No, there are alot of different models out there that address different empirical observations on attention, but often times, these models are compatible =. • To what extent does our conscious visual experience capture what we perceive? - It only captures part of what we perceive • What neural mechanisms are involved in the control of attention? - Attention acts on the sensory representations in the brain, it does stuff like shrink the receptive field of a neuron. There are two networks of control of these processes: The dorsal (for voluntary reasons) and ventral (novelty/salience). Learning Objectives 1. Describe what attention is and how it was initially studied and defined (e.g., William James, Helmholtz, Cherry).

- Attention is the cognitive process that involves selectively concentrating on certain aspects of the environment while ignoring others. It is a crucial aspect of perception, memory and other similar cognitive functions. - Williams James in his book “The Principles of Psychology” (1890) described attention as the taking possession of the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seems several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. This definition tends to emphasize the limited capacity that attention has and the need to select and focus on specific stimuli. - Hermann von Helmholtz contributed to attention through his experiments on reaction times. His work helped lay the foundation for understanding the time shift that it takes to change your attention from one stimulus to another. - Cherry’s “cocktail party effect” experiment demonstrates the ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment which highlighted the brain’s capacity to selectively attend to relevant information and filter out irrelevant stimuli 2. Know the various distinctions in types of attention that have been proposed (e.g., covert versus overt, top-down versus bottom-up, spatial versus feature-based, etc.) - Covert versus Overt : Covert attention involves mentally focusing on a stimulus without overtly moving the eyes. Overt attention involves physically moving the eyes to direct attention. - Top-down versus bottom-up : The Top-down attention is driven by internal goals, expectations, and prior knowledge. Bottom-up attention is stimulus-driven, capturing the attention based on the salience of external stimuli. - Spatial versus Feature-based : Spatial attention involves focusing on a particular location in the visual field, while feature-based attention involves focusing on specific features of stimuli such as colors or shape. 3. Identify the brain structures that are involved in attention. - Frontal Cortex : This region is responsible for executive functions, including goal setting, planning and decision making. It plays a role in the top-down control of attention. - Parietal Cortex: involved in spatial processing and directing attention. The posterior parietal cortex is associated with the integration of sensory information and the allocation of attention. - Temporal Cortex : Important for recognizing and processing sensory stimuli, specifically in the auditory and visual domains

- Brainstem/Thalamus : the brainstem/thalamus plays a role in regulating overall alertness and the sleep-wake cycle. 4. Discuss key findings from patients who have problems with attention (e.g., Balint’s, Hemi- spatial neglect), and describe how different attentional deficits can arise from different brain lesions. - Balint’s syndrome : Patients with Balint’s syndrome experience severe visuospatial disorientation. They have difficulty perceiving the visual field as a whole, often fixating on individual objects. - Hemi-spatial Neglect : This condition involves neglect of stimuli in one-half of the visual field. Patients may ignore objects or events on one side, typically the left, due to damage in the right parietal cortex. - (any additional problems?) 5. Understand the different models / theories that have been offered to explain how attention operates and know the ways in which they are compatible with each other. - Filter Model (Broadbent) : Broadbent’s early model posits a selective filter that allows only relevant information to pass through based on physical characteristics. Unattended information is filtered out at an early stage of processing - Resource Model (Kahneman) : Kahneman’s model suggests that attention is a limited resource that can be allocated to different tasks. Tasks that require more cognitive resources may suffer in performance when attention is divided - Feature Integration theory (Treisman) : This theory helps explain how features (e.g., color, shape) are initially processed in parallel and later integrated into a unified perceptual experience. Attention is crucial for binding these features together. 6. Describe the neural mechanisms of attention, and how they have been identified through both animal and human studies. - Superior Colliculus (in animals) : This subcortical structure is found to be involved in orienting movements in response to sensory stimuli. It plays a crucial role in the control of eye movements. - Pulvinar and Parietal Cortex (in humans) : The pulvinar nucleus of the thalamus and the parietal cortex are crucial for spatial attention. They are involved in directing attention to specific locations in the visual field. - Frontal Cortex : The frontal cortex, particularly the prefrontal cortex, is associated with

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executive control processes, including the ability to sustain attention over time and resist distraction. 7. Know that attentional control networks have been proposed, know which brain regions are involved and how the cognitive functions of these networks have been characterized. - Dorsal Attention Network (DAN) : this network (which involves the parietal cortex ). Is associated with top-down attention and spatial processing. It is often engaged in tasks requiring goal-directed attention and voluntary control. - Ventral Attention Network (VAN): The Temporoparietal junction is a key component of the VAN, which is involved in stimulus-driven attention. It is activated in response to unexpected or salient stimuli in the environment. Topic 2: Memory Big Picture Questions: • What is forgotten in amnesia? - Often “Episodic Events that occur after the injury” but sometimes events before injury, sometimes short-term memory • Are all forms of amnesia the same? - No and there are different forms that are associated with different regions of brain damage • Are memories for personal events processed in the same way as procedural memories for how to perform a task? - No, these memories are separable and depend on different brain regions • What are the different kinds/formats of memory/Which brain systems are critical for each kind of memory? - Sensory Memory : - Function : Brief storage of sensory information (e.g., visual, auditory) for a very short period of time - Brain Systems : Various sensory areas, such as the visual cortex

for visual sensory memory and the auditory cortex for auditory sensory memory. - Short-term Memory (STM) : - Function : Temporary storage of information actively being processed. - Brain Systems : Prefrontal cortex, especially the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, is known to be crucial for maintaining and manipulating information in short term memory - Working Memory - Function : A system for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for cognitive tasks. - Brain Systems : in addition to the prefrontal cortex, the parietal cortex is involved in spatial aspects of working memory, and the hippocampus is implicated in coordinating and integrating information - Long-term memory (LTM): - Function : the relatively permanent storage of information over an extended period. - Brain systems : the hippocampus is crucial for the formation of new long term memories. Overtime, as memories become more stabilized, various cortical areas become more involved in the storage and retrieval of long-term memories. - Declarative Memory : - Function : involves the conscious recollection of facts and events/ - Brain Systems : Medial temporal lobe structures, including the hippocampus, play a vital role in the formation of declarative memories. The Prefrontal cortex is also involved in the organization and retrieval of these memories - Non-Declarative Memory (Procedural Memory): - Function: Involves the learning of skills, habits and conditioned responses

- Brain Systems : Basal ganglia and motor cortex are critical for procedural memory. This memory is less dependent on the hippocampus than declarative memory. - Episodic Memory : - Function : involves the formation and storage of memories with emotional significance - Brain Systems : The amygdala, a structure in the limbic system, plays a central role in the formation and modulation of emotional memories - Spatial Memory: - Function : involves the ability to remember and navigate through spatial environments - Brain systems : the hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, and certain regions of the parietal cortex contribute to spatial memory - Associative Memory : - Function : Involves the ability to link related pieces of information - Brain systems : The prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus are involved in forming and retrieving associations between different elements. • What are the cellular mechanisms of memory storage? - Hebbian Learning, NMDA receptors, LTP and LTD Learning Objectives 1. Understand the different stages of learning and memory (i.e., encoding, consolidation, storage and retrieval). - Encoding : this is the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory. It involves acquiring, processing, and combining information - Semantic Encoding : Processing the meaning of the information which leads to better retention - Visual Encoding : creates mental images to help memorize ( - Acoustic Encoding : converts information into sounds (e.g, audio books)

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- Consolidation : once the information has been encoded, it needs to be stabilized and strengthened. This process is consolidation which involves a gradual process of converting new memories into more stable and into a long-term form. - Synaptic Consolidatio n: Involves the structural changes at synapses when converting information into a more stable memory - System Consolidation : involves the gradual reorganization of neural circuits - Storage : this involves holding onto the information overtime, the storage can be in various forms, such as sensory memory, short term memory (STM) and long term memory (LTM) - Sensory Memory : briefly holds the sensory information, examples of this are iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memories. - Short-term Memory (STM) : Limited capacity, usually has around 7 items and a short duration without rehearsal. - Long term Memory (LTM): Potentially has unlimited storage capacity and duration. - Retrieval : This is the process of recalling stored information from memory when it is needed - Recall : Retrieving information without external cues (without the help of notes, pure memory recall) - Recognition : Identifying previously learned information with the help of cues. (I.e. Notes, journal, etc) 2. Know how Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) described short-term memory (in the Modal Model) and be able to compare it to how Baddeley and Hitch (1974) described “Working Memory”. - Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968): Described a model with separate storage for sensory memory, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) - Short term memory is seen as a temporary storage - Information passes through sensory memory to short term memory (STM) and then to long-term memory (LTM) - Baddeley and Hitch (1974): Proposed a concept of working memory, which consists of a central executive system and two subsystems (the phonological loop for verbal information and the visuospatial sketchpad for visual and spatial information - Central Executive : Oversees the whole system - Phonological Loop : Deals with the auditory information it has perceived

- Visuospatial Sketchpad : processes visual and spatial information 3. Describe the brain areas involved in memory and memory-related functions. - Hippocampus: critical for the formation of new memories - Critical for More specifically ( Explicit/declarative) memories - Role : Consolidation of short-term memory to long-term memory - Amygdala : Involved in the processing of emotional memories - Role : Emotionally charged memories, especially those with fear. - Prefrontal Cortex : Plays a role in working memory and short-term memory - Role: Working memory, decision making, and processing of information in short- term memory - Temporal Lobe : Involved in the processing of auditory information and is linked to memory. - Role : Processing auditory information and formation of auditory memories 4. Know the distinctions between memory types shown in the “taxonomy of memory” diagram. - 5. Explain anterograde and retrograde amnesia. - Anterograde Amnesia : is the inability to form new memories but you can still remember things from before the amnesia - Retrograde Amnesia is when you cannot recall your past memories. - 6. Know which cognitive functions were impaired and spared in function H.M. and describe the evidence for this. - H.M impaired functions are

- Anterograde Amnesia : he was unable to form new explicit memories after the surgery and his ability to encode and store new information in the long-term memories were severely impaired. Examples of this is not remembering meeting new people, engaging in recent conversations or learning new facts - Partial Retrograde Amnesia : he also experienced retrograde amnesia as he had difficulty recalling events that happened shortly before the surgery which suggests the removal of his Medial Temporal Lobes affects the consolidation/retrieval process of his recent memories - Spatial Memory Impairment : H.M had difficulty navigating through space and forming new spatial memories, he couldn’t learn new routes or remember the layout of new environments (which is highlighted in the Hippocampus ) - The Spared Functions are as followed - IQ, Language and General Cognitive Functions : Despite his amnesia, he retained his intellectual abilities, language skills and general functions, his IQ remained the same and could perform various cognitive tasks that did not rely on forming new LTM memories - Implicit Memory : H.M has shown intact Implicit Memory which involves the unconscious influence of past experiences on current behavior. He could improve his performance on tasks over time without consciously remembering having done them before. - Procedural Memory : H.M was able to learn and retain new motor skills which includes drawing or mirror tracing, even though he had no conscious recollection of practicing this before 7. Understand the importance of memory duration for memory distinctions (i.e., sensory, short-term, long-term). - Sensory Memory : - Duration : Very brief, typically a fraction of a second to a few seconds - Importance : Sensory Memory serves as a temporary buffer that briefly holds information from the sensory environment which allows the brain to selectively attend to relevant stimuli. - Short Term Memory : - Duration: relatively short, typically around 15-30 seconds without rehearsal - Importance : Short-term memory is essential for temporarily holding and

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manipulating information needed for cognitive tasks, it act as a workspace for immediate processing such as mental calculations and decision making, it helps prioritize and update information based on current goals/tasks - Long-term Memory : - Duration : relatively permanent, with potential to last a lifetime - Importance : Long-term memory is responsible for for storing information over extended periods of time, ranging from facts and events to skills/experiences. The ability to retain information in long-term memory is critical for learning and building a knowledge base. This allows for the accumulation of knowledge and expertise 8. Understand the importance of the type of information being stored (e.g., visual, auditory, semantic) for distinctions between different types of memory. - Visual Memory : Processed in visual cortices, involves the storage and retrieval of visual information like images and spatial relationships. Example is remembering the layout of a room or faces. - Auditory Memory : Processed in auditory cortices, Relates to the storage and retrieval and auditory information, including sounds and spoken words, example is remembering a song’s melody or spoken conversation - Semantic Memory : handled by various regions in the neocortex, pertains to the storage of general knowledge, facts and concepts, example includes knowing paris is the capital of france. - This all helps the brain organize and process information 9. Explain the differences between declarative and nondeclarative memory, and their subtypes. - Declarative Memory : - Definition : involves the conscious, explicit recall of facts and events - Subtypes : - Episodic memory : pertains to specific events/experiences (for example, remembering a birthday party or vacation) - Semantic memory : Involves general knowledge/facts (Like knowing the meaning of words or understanding historical events.) - Nondeclarative memory - Definition : Involves unconscious, implicit memories that influence behavior

without conscious awareness - Subtypes : - Procedural memory : Involves the learning and execution of motor skills, examples include riding a bike or typing on keyboards - Priming : Prior exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus, examples include seeing a picture of an animal before identifying a word related to the animal. - Conditioning : Associations between stimuli and responses are formed through repeated exposure. 10. Describe how functional MRI findings suggest the involvement of the hippocampus in encoding and retrieval of episodic memories, and extrahippocampal regions in supporting familiarity and the retrieval of sensory details. - Hippocampus Involvement : Studies using functional MRI have shown increased activity in the hippocampus during the encoding/retrieval of episodic memories. - Extrahippocampal Regions : Other brain regions, including the prefrontal cortex and posterior cortices are implicated in episodic memory. They are involved in strategic aspects of memory while the posterior areas support the retrieval of sensory details. 11. Explain standard consolidation theory and multiple trace theory. - Standard Consolidation Theory : Posits that memories are initially stored in the hippocampus and are gradually transferred to neocortical areas over time. This process is thought to involve a process of consolidation where memories become more stable and less reliant on the hippocampus - Multiple Trace Theory : Challenges the idea that the hippocampus becomes less critical overtime. It suggests that after consolidation, the hippocampus retains a role in the retrieval of detailed episodic memories which emphasizes the process the hippocampus has in memory processes. 12. Explain Hebbian learning and long-term potentiation. - Hebbian Learning : This is based on the idea that Synaptic connections are strengthened when neurons are activated simultaneously. This principle underlies the formation of neural circuits and is considered a fundamental mechanism for

learning/memory - Long-term Potentiation (LTP): in context of memory, LTP refers to the long-lasting increase in synaptic strengths that occurs after brief, high-frequency stimulation. 13. Describe the extent to which Patient H.M. was able to acquire new semantic knowledge, and know and understand the evidence for this. - Evidence : Patient H.M was able to acquire new semantic knowledge to an extent, which is demonstrated by his ability to learn and remember new facts/information even though his ability to form new episodic memories was severely impaired - Implications : This dissociation between declarative and nondeclarative memory in Patient H.M. highlighted the complexity of memory systems. While his medial temporal lobe damage has affected the formation of new episodic memories, other brain regions or memory systems allowed for the acquisition of new semantic knowledge which underscores the functional specialization of different memory processes. Topic 3: Emotion Big Picture Questions: • What is an Emotion? - A feeling that is “embodied” (you feel it within you) and it is recognizable and triggered by a stimulus (dolan, 2002). - Neurological process that has involved to guide behavior to increase survival and reproduction (according to evolutionary psychology) - A feeling state or process that motivates and organizes cognition and action, that emerges from dedicated neural circuits and response systems (Izard, 2010) (comes after asking 35 scientists their opinions) • What role do emotions play in behavior? - It is debated whether emotions come first or if behavior comes first but we know emotions can influence learning, decision making and attention. • How are emotions generated? - There is a lot of theories on this and no one has a definitive answer.

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• Is emotion processing localized, distributed, or a mixture? - The modern view is that the emotion processing is distributed • What effect does emotion have on cognitive processing (perception, memory, etc.)? And what effect do cognitive processes have on emotion? - E.g, fear or an unpleasant experience enhances learning and emotions can guide decision making. • Should you listen to your mom’s advice about risky situations? - Yes, we should learn about risky situations from our parents, they are crucial to our development and understanding risky situations and the pros and cons of the risky situations. Learning Objectives 1. Define what an emotion is. - A feeling that is “embodied” (you feel it with your body), recognizable and triggered by a stimulus: - Dolan (2002) - A neurological process that has evolved to guide behavior to increase survival and reproduction - (According to evolutionary psychology) - A feeling state or process that motivates and organizes cognition and action, that emerges from dedicated neural circuits and response systems - Izard (2010) - after asking 35 scientists their opinion 2. Identify the brain structures that are involved in emotion. - Amygdala : Plays a role in processing/regulating emotions, especially in the formation processing of emotional memories - Hippocampus : Involved in contextual aspects of emotion and memory formation, crucial in the emotional processing of experiences and helps connect emotions to specific times and places. - Hypothalamus : Regulates the autonomic nervous system and releases hormones that

influence emotional responses, - Prefrontal Cortex : Plays a role in regulation and expression of emotions, particularly in decision-making and social interactions 3. Establish categories for emotions. - Primary Emotions : Basic, Universal emotions like happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust - Secondary Emotions : Complex emotions that emerge from combinations of primary emotions, cultural influences and cognitive appeals 4. Discuss theories that explain how emotions are generated. - James-Lange Theory : Suggests that emotions result from the perception of physiological responses to stimuli. We feel emotions because of the bodily reactions we experience - - Cannon-Bard Theory : Proposes that emotional experiences and physiological responses occur simultaneously but independently in response to a stimulus - Physiological responses are not distinct enough”

- Which emotions might be confusable? - Which emotions might elicit very similar physiological responses? - Tested the James-Lange Theory in a cat - Severed the cortex from sympathetic inputs (from visceral organs) above the brainstem - No Inputs from visceral organs possible - Presented a dog: cat still bared its teeth and growled - - Anderson & Adolphs : emotions as central causative states - 5. Describe the amygdala and its role in emotion. - Located in the temporal lobe - Role in Emotion : The amygdala is crucial for processing emotional stimuli, particularly in the formation of emotional memories and regulation of fear responses. It helps assign emotional significance to stimuli and contribute to the emotional aspect of decision-making 6. Understand how emotion influences learning. - Enhancement : Amygdala role : Emotional arousal activates the amygdala which enhances memory consolidation in other brain regions like the hippocampus . This can result in more vivid and long-lasting memories for emotionally charged events - Neurotransmitter release : Emotional experiences trigger the release of neurotransmitters

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like dopamine and norepinephrine which can enhance the synaptic plasticity and facilitate learning and memory formation - Attention and Focus : Emotional stimuli can capture attention and increase focus, improving the encoding of information into memory - Individual Differences : The impact of emotion on learning can vary among individuals, it is influenced by factors like personality, stress levels and individual differences in emotional responsiveness 7. Understand the interaction between emotion and other cognitive processes. - Attention : - Selective Attention : Emotional stimuli tend to receive preferential processing and capture attention more effectively than neutral stimuli. This selective attention influences what is perceived, remembered, and processed cognitively - Memory : - Memory Enhancement: Emotional events are often better remembered due to the involvement of the amygdala in memory consolidation. The emotional significance of a event contributes to stronger and more vivid memories - Decision making : - Emotional Influence : Emotions play a significant role in decision-making by influencing the evaluation of options. Positive or negative emotional states can shape preferences, risk perception and the overall decision process. 8. Discuss how emotion plays a role in the evaluation of facial expressions. - Emotion Recognition : - Universal Expressions : Research suggests that certain facial expressions are universally recognized across cultures, indicating that certain emotions like happiness, sad, anger, fear, surprise and disgust are associated with specific facial configurations - Emotional Contagion : The ability to recognize emotions in facial expressions is related to emotional contagion, where individuals unconsciously mimic the facial expressions of others, leading to shared emotional experiences - Social Interactions : - Social Signals : Facial expressions serve as powerful social signals, influencing how individuals perceive and respond to one another. They contribute to understanding social dynamics, trust and the establishment of social bonds - Social Communication : Emotional facial expressions play a significant role in nonverbal communication. They complement verbal communication, providing additional information about the emotional content of a message - Cognitive Appraisal : - Emotion Regulation : the evaluation of facial expressions is linked to emotion regulation, where individuals adjust their own emotions in response to the emotional expression of others. This process is essential for maintaining social harmony and effective communication - Attribution of intentions : Facial expressions contribute to the attribution of intentions and motivations. For example, a smiling face may be interpreted as friendly whereas a frowning face may be interpreted as unfriendly or displeased. - Impact on Memory and Attention :

- Enhanced Memory : Emotional facial expressions often capture attention and are more likely to be remembered than neutral expressions. This enhanced memory for emotional faces contributes to the formation of social memories and influences future interactions. - Selective Attention : Emotion influences the selective attention given to specific facial features for instance, when evaluating faces, individuals tend to focus more on the eyes, which are crucial for conveying emotional information - Emotional Disorders : - Disrupted Evaluation : Individuals with certain emotional disorders, such as depression or anxiety, may exhibit altered patterns in the evaluation of facial expressions. They might be more prone to interpret neutral facial expressions as expressing negative emotions, contributing to difficulties in social interaction. - Clinical Applications : Evaluation of facial expressions is employed in clinical settings to assess emotional well-being and diagnose conditions such as autism spectrum disorders or certain mood disorders. Neglect Syndrome - Parietal lobe (right lobe more than the left) Memory - H.M had the hardest time learning the words for numbers in a foreign language - Anterograde/retrograde - Anterograde: recall things after brain injury - retrograde: recall things before the memory

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