final human behavior research paper

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Human Behavior Theories Zephonnetta Stephens Undergraduate Student Coastline Community College

Introduction Human behavior theories are developed strategies created by professionals to treat individuals experiencing emotional, mental, or even psychological distress. I will provide data from the research that will give you the main points of psychodynamic, phenomenological, and cognitive behavior theories. This research seems essential to address given that these approaches emphasize the idea of meaning in promoting psychological growth and change. My goal is to recognize which one would produce better results in the various interventions, and which theory can treat a wide range of issues on a theoretical and therapeutic level and then overlook the strengths and weaknesses. To conclude I will determine which of these therapeutic models would suit the type of helper I will become. Human Behavior Human behavior is the mental, psychological, and physical actions and reactions of an individual's internal and external impulses experienced daily. Human behavior can be positive or negative, and when it is negative people often seek help to understand and correct it. Theories of human behavior serve as a building block for establishing a relationship between the helper and the helpee, treating the helpee and correcting or controlling their behavior. Psychodynamic This theory is the most complex due to the constant criticisms and conflictions in the key elements and concepts that were contributed by the originator Sigmund Freud. From the concepts throughout its history four major theories have been constructed: drive theory, ego psychology, object-relations theory, and self-psychology (Greenberg & Mitchell, 1983; Mishne, 1993; Holtz Deal, 2007).

Drive theory Sigmund Freud created this theory determining that human behavior is driven to seek gratification due to biological impulses. He first hypothesized sex (eros) and self-preservation to be the preliminary drives then modified it including destructive and aggressive drive (Greenberg & Mitchell, 1983). In psychosexual development that is when human behavior can be altered or corrupted and an individual will misinterpret nonsexual body functions, in the libidinal stages it is possible to make a connection to sucking (when feeding) and anal arousal (when defecating) (Mishne, 1993, p.11; Holtz Deal, 2007). Unlike the oral, and the anal stages, the phallic stage is critical because this is where childhood experiences can resolve the Oedipus conflict helping a child develop a mature identity (Brandell,2004). The oedipus conflict is where the child desires the parent of the opposite sex and sees the other parent as a rival. The child eventually relinquishes those feelings and identifies with the same sex parent (Brandell, 2004; Holtz Deal, 2007). In seeking that gratification, individuals are confronted by those who oppose it (Holtz Deal, 2007). Gratification can be opposed internally also by the ego and the Super ego. The ego helps to perceive the world accurately controlling those drives. The Super ego has four functions: providing direction, limiting behavior, punishing unacceptable behavior, and observing and measuring the ego against the ego ideal (Milrod). (“The Superego: Its Formation, Structure, and Functioning”) Conflict can occur if these fantasies come to the conscious but if the individual represses them, they go back to the unconscious. If the repression fails, a person’s ego could activate their defenses, distorting awareness (Brandell, 2004, p. 36; Holtz Deal, 2007).

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Ego psychology Freud's structural theory implies the ego is weak in relation to the id. Later concluding the ego goes beyond just controlling the drive, including organizational functions, judgment, reality testing, thought processes, and regularity self-esteem (Goldstein, 1995; Schamess, 2002). Opposing Freud's idea that the ego develops from the id Hartman (1939) theorize the ego has many functions that are free from conflict. White (1963) claims the drives are equal, and exploration of satisfaction will determine the outcome. Erikson (1959) expanded Freud's work of the psychosexual stages by developing eight stages that included social and cultural influences. Describing these stages from birth to old age and emphasizing development occurs our entire life. Object Relations Greenberg and Mitchell (1983) explain a minor shift in the theory where drives in derivatives are what controls behavior to people are object seeking looking to connect with people. This theory is of interest in the pre-oedipal stage. Children internalized representations of themselves and caregivers. The term object relations, therefore, “refers not only to ‘real’ relationships with others, but also to the internal mental representations of others and to internal images of self as well” (Flanagan, 2002, p. 128). These internalized representations of self and others begin as cognitive constructions based on experiences, ideas, and memories, but they take on emotional meaning, becoming cognitive-affective templates for future relationships (Flanagan). Gradual, small failures in responsiveness by the mother, however, help the infant’s ego develop through experiencing the world separate from the mother, thus facilitating the separation-individuation

process (Brandell, 2004; Greenberg & Mitchell, 1983) Although many oppose this theory and there are critics who seek to modify it. Self-Psychology In contrast to Freud's theory Kokut developed a theory where individuals are seen as fragile, fragmented, isolated, and vulnerable (Brandell, 2004; Holtz Deal, 2008). Kohut wrote, from the 1960s through the 1980s, a cultural period marked by an exaggerated emphasis on self- fulfillment. He encountered patients whom he viewed as having a fragile, fragmented sense of self and who were “extremely sensitive to failures, disappointments, and slights” (Kohut & Wolf, 1978, p. 413). Parents first serve as self-objects “in which the object is actually experienced as an extension of the self, without psychological differentiation” (Brandell, 2004, p. 63) Individuals need three types of self-object experiences to facilitate development of their tripolar self. Self- objects that praise and admire them, self-objects that can be idealized, and partnering self-objects to provide twinship or being like others (Brandell, 2004; Flanagan, 2002). Self-psychology emphasizes that empathic attunement is the key environmental condition facilitating the development of a healthy, cohesive, and secure self. Phenomenological Theory Edmond Husserl was a philosopher that developed phenomenological theory. By using scientific methods, he assisted researchers in the investigation of human experience and behavior (Wertz, 2005). When phenomena approach is used in therapeutic processes today the focus is on either two of the three theories: person centered developed by Carl Rogers or the gestalt theory advanced by Fritz Perls. The third one is the existential theory. An angle of thinking from Europe, and more of a therapeutic approach. Putting emphasis on it being personalized and

always developing techniques. With the reality of options, we have as human beings we are always looking for the meaning of something. In existential therapy the goal is to help the client reach their full potential. The humanistic therapist should become the client's companion (Okun, Kantrowit, 2008). With no specific techniques in this approach, therapists are factors in the success of this approach. Reaching the clients is the terming factor in its success. Person-Centered (client-centered) Wanting to encompass an approach that is the opposite of psychoanalysis. In person centered approach clients are driven towards self-actualization and autonomy. This theory holds the belief that negative emotions like hate and anger do not exist. It is heavily influenced by the experiences they have had and the perception they receive from others (Okun, Kantrowit, 2008). Existential Theory Developed into a therapeutic approach existential very views see human nature as being subjective and ever changing (Okun, Kantrowit, 2008) the goal is to help the clients see available choices and take responsibility for what they want to choose. By being aware of these processes, one can step in early on and stop the progression of harmful emotional states like anger, anxiety, and depression that can escalate. Developed from the vicious accumulation of negative thoughts, feelings, and bodily sensations. It is empowering to develop this capacity for awareness since it opens choices and provides choice where previously there may not have been any. It serves as a therapeutic help by highlighting the information for additional therapeutic research. This information could be cognitive (automatic thoughts, memories, or self-judgments), affective (quality of the emotion, similarity to previously experienced emotions), physiological (where is the sensation located), or behavioral (how did your thinking, emotions, and physical sensations

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affect you) (Classens, 2009). Encouraging the client to interact with the world on a natural level. Self-structure and concept can be influenced by nature and shape harmonious (Okun, Kantrowit, 2008). Gestalt theory Human behavior is organized into gestalts configurations or patterns. Focusing on the here and now it emphasizes people to not just talk about things but to do them. Major constructs of just thought are our maturity, awareness, assuming responsibility, exploring feelings, and the individual encouraged not to go with society but trust in themselves (Okun, Kantrowit, 2008). Gestalt therapy does not have an accepted treatment manual and can be tailored to different clinical populations (Francesetti, Gecele, & Roubal, 2013; Greenberg, 2016; Roubal & Rihacek, 2016; Roubal, Francesetti, & Gecele, 2017; Spagnuolo Lobb, 2013; Yontef, 1993), in a variety of clinical settings (Wheeler & Axelsson, 2015). Research in Gestalt therapy has increased over the last decade, particularly practice based and phenomenological research (Barber, 2006; Brownell, 2008, 2014, 2016; Butollo, Koenig, Karl, Henkel, & Rosner, 2014; Elliott & Hendricks, 2017; Goss & Stevens, 2016; McConville, 2014; Meara & Fogarty, 2017; Roubal, 2016; Stevens, Stringfellow, Wakelin, & Waring, 2011). Cognitive-Behavior Therapy This is the approach that has a great deal of evidence-based research to support the theory. Combining behaviorism with the constructs of thinking, feeling, motives, etc. It is the treatment choice for many (Okun, Kantrowit 2008). Cognitive-Behavior therapies is better understood as the umbrella term because it has a number of therapies that share common elements. The two earliest forms were REBT (rational emotive behavior therapy) designed by Albert Ellis in the

1950’s and CT (cognitive therapy) designed by Aaron T. Beck in the 1960’s (McLeod, 2023). People who use REBT are encouraged to recognize their underlying, irrational beliefs (such as, "I must be perfect") and are then persuaded to question these lies through reality testing. According to Albert Ellis (1957, 1962), each of us has a distinct set of beliefs about who we are and the world around us that serve as our road map through life and shape how we respond to the various circumstances we come across. A major aid in cognitive therapy is what Albert Ellis (1957) called the ABC Technique of Irrational Beliefs (McLeod, 2023). Although Beck's (1967) method of therapy is similar to Ellis', depression is the condition for which it is most frequently used. Cognitive therapists assist their patients in identifying the unfavorable ideas and logical fallacies that contribute to their depression. Additionally, the therapist helps clients explore new interpretations of their dysfunctional thoughts and eventually apply alternative ways of thinking to their daily lives. Aaron Beck thinks that a person's response to particular distressing ideas may play a role in abnormality. Both consoling and upsetting ideas cross our minds as we deal with the various circumstances that life throws at us. Beck refers to these unplanned ideas as automatic ones. Unfortunately, some people act and respond inappropriately based on their assumptions, which harms their odds of happiness and success. Albert Ellis labels these fundamental presumptions as illogical (McLeod, 2023). Usually, it is a short-term goal-orientated therapy, but that depends on numerous factors. As an active problem focused, and a time sensitive treatment, this approach aims to increase adaptive behavior while reducing emotional distress in mental health patients. Interventions are strategic and formulate structure for patients. Started treatment goals and the efficacy can be evaluated as they go (Okun, Kantrowit, 2008).

Systematic desensitization (counterconditioning)- the patient is exposed while in a relaxed state and the situation loses the power to make them anxious. Exposure response prevention- the patient is repeatedly confronted with the anxiety provoking stimulus period of winds behavior is practiced and the patient will have anxiety peak and subside enabling emotion habituation. Relaxation- relaxation is taught to reduce psychological arousal. Positive and negative enforcement- this medical enforcement is used to establish new behavior. Cognitive modification- correcting maladaptive thoughts. Assertiveness training- patients learn and practice behavioral techniques. Stress-management- the combination of strategies to reduce tension. Problem solving- identifying evaluating and applying situations (Dobson, Khatri, 2000; Beck, 1995). Strengths and Weaknesses Psychodynamic Strengths It considers that a person’s childhood can make an impact in their adult life. It investigates our drives that motivate our behavior. It encourages self-awareness and can be helpful for the client in making life choices (Vinney, 2018). Acknowledges the unconscious mind and how it can affect our behavior (Flow Psychology, 2016).

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Weaknesses Ignores biological components, it is dependent on feedback from the therapist. It also lacks scientific methodology. There is no way to empirically research the unconscious mind (Vinney, 2018) There are no defined goals, and there is too much emphasis on the client-therapist relationship. The therapist has too much control over the session (Tokology, 2016). Phenomenological Strengths One asset is the researcher's capacity to employ personal motivation and interest to drive the investigation. This is advantageous when the researcher is driven because a keen interest in the subject will encourage dissertation completion. The human dimension is both the scientific method of phenomenological qualitative inquiry and analysis's greatest asset and its most important flaw ( Pringle, Hendry, McLafferty, 2011) . Weaknesses For one, and possibly for many, bias is a worry. Biases, views, and values must be incorporated into the study at the outset as part of the researcher's responsibility. Another drawback is that the process might be labor- and time-intensive. A drawback could be the vast volume of data that needs to be examined. Therefore, it is impossible to generalize from the unique circumstances from which the data is gathered ( Pringle, Hendry, McLafferty, 2011) .

Cognitive-Behavior Strengths The cognitive approach has a number of useful applications, which is one of its strengths. In addition to allowing for high control over confounding variables, experiments enable for the determination of cause and effect (Alahmad, 2020). Weaknesses The first reason behaviorists reject this theory is that ideas are abstract and challenging to define. Second, the theory's definition and uses are not accepted. The cognitive method also has the flaw of ignoring other elements that have been proven to influence behavior. The cognitive approach's disregard for other elements that have been demonstrated to influence behavior is another flaw (Alahmad, 2020). Interventions Psychodynamic (Yakeley) interpretive interventions enhance the patient’s insight about repetitive conflicts sustaining their problems (Gabbard, 2004), and offer a new formulation of unconscious meaning and motivation for the patient. Modern therapists frequently see “transference interpretations” which concentrate on the interaction between therapist and patient and the “here and now” or emotive exchange of the session, as the most transformative interventions (Yakeley, 2018).

Phenomenological An intervention strategy of the phenomenological approach is to take the what and how questions never the why to help expand the individual's sense of responsibility and awareness and make the implicit explicit through the exaggerated behavior (Sholokhova, Bizzari, & Fuchs, 2022). Cognitive-Behavior Cohen, Mannarino, and Deblinger created the manualized technique known as "trauma-focused CBT" (TF-CBT). Along with other elements that are typical of CBT interventions, such as coping skill development and symptom management, cognitive restructuring, and gradual exposure, 267 TF-CBT specifically tackles traumatic symptoms. However, there are some important differences, including a stronger emphasis on graded exposure, writing a trauma narrative (TN) that is suitable for the trauma, and processing events cognitively. This focus expands on results from research that supports a model of trauma in which traumatic memories and related symptoms are maintained by cognitive biases and avoidance strategies (Macdonald et al., 2016). When working with clients you have a duty to provide them with the best care possible. You might meet a patient who puts your capacity for compassionate therapy to the test right away. You and the client might be able to cooperate in some circumstances to get past this challenge. Other times, it may be in your best interests and the person you're working with to refer them to another mental health specialist. Early on in therapy, you might learn that the patient has mental

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health issues that you are unprepared to handle. These could be signs of psychosis, dissociative disorders, or psychological disorders. These ailments might need expert care. Conclusion The social work profession and the clients it serves can profit from psychological treatment that psychodynamic, phenomenological, and cognitive-behavior theories in the unique understanding of psychopathology and wellbeing. This paper’s conclusion outlines which theory a clinical helper can responsibly create treatment plans from and contribute to the clinical team, as well as expand their position on a team as a helper. Last but not least, this research study has not investigated all the theories and the effectiveness they could offer the client so I will seek to study other theories.

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final human behavior research paper

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