psych 11b chapter study guides

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psych 11b study guides Ch 6: Learning • What is learning? • Change in behavior/knowledge as result of experience or instruction • What is a contrast to learning? • instincts (ex: migration is not learned, it’s innate) • What is “non-associative” learning, & what falls under this category? • Most common form; involves gaining information via repeated exposure & operates subconsciously • habituation/dishabituation & sensitization • What is habituation? Provide an example • Decrease in strength of a response after repeated presentation of stimulus • Ex: dogs bark at humans to signal danger, but if they’re repeatedly exposed to humans, they bark less) • What is dishabituation? Provide an example • If sensory input changes slightly, brain detects & re-responds • Ex: you get used to the noise in a coffee shop, then an alarm goes off, altering you from your habituated state • What is sensitization? Provide an example • Responding more strongly over time to repeated dangerous/irritating stimuli • Ex: children exposed to repeated abuse respond with extreme fear reactions such as anger outbursts • Who experimented with habituation & sensitization? • Eric Kandel; used shocks on sea slugs • What are the effects of habituation/sensitization dependent on? • Physiological arousal • Ex: if you’re alert/nervous, you’re more likely to experience sensitization. If you just meditated (in a calm physio state), you’re more likely to experience habituation • What is associative learning & what types of learning fall under this category? • Making a connection between 2 events/actions • Includes classical conditioning & operant conditioning • What is classical conditioning? • A more passive/involuntary form of learning where responses become paired/associated with a stimulus • What are the key components of classical conditioning? Provide examples • Unconditioned stimulus (US): event that automatically produces response ( ex: rotten milk makes you feel sick) • Unconditioned response (UR): response that is automatically generated by US ( ex: drinking rotten milk → throwing up)

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): former neutral stimulus that eventually produces response ( ex: drank rotten milk from silver cup one time → drinking from same cup a different time → vomiting bc you paired the stimulus) • Conditioned response (CR): adaptive response generated following exposure to CS ( ex: seeing silver cup → gagging) • Who studied classical conditioning? Summarize their experiment • Ivan Pavlov • Rang a bell (NS) → no response • Rang a bell → presented food (US) → salivation (UR) • Bell (NS) became CS bc dogs paired sound of the bell with the idea that they’d be fed • After conditioning: bell (CS) → salivation (CR) • Name the 8 major extensions of classical conditioning • Acquisition • First-order conditioning • Second-order conditioning • Generalization • Overgeneralization • Discrimination • Extinction • Spontaneous Recovery • What is acquisition? • Phase where pairing of US & NS (in Pavlov’s experiment, it would be food and bell) are introduced • There's no response at this stage • What are first & second-order conditioning? • First-order: CS will eventually elicit saliva on its own ( ex: bell paired with food, present bell but no food, still leads to salivation) • Now turn on the light then ring the bell • Second-order: a second CS (light) comes to elicit saliva (light signals the bell, which signals the US & the CR) • What are generalization, overgeneralization, & discrimination? • Generalization: once trained to respond to a specific CS, will also respond to stimuli closely related to CS ( ex: dogs who respond to bell may also respond to buzzer) • Overgeneralization: the result of generalization going too far ( ex: looking for cars any time you hear any sound resembling a horn) • Discrimination: distinguishing between different stimuli, preventing overgeneralization • What is extinction & spontaneous recovery?

• Extinction: if CS is repeatedly presented in absence of the US, the CR will gradually disappear ( ex: you repeatedly present the bell but not the food; salivation stops occurring) • Spontaneous recovery: extinct behavior reappears after a delay • What is blocking? • Brain selectively learns event associations that are more valuable & informative for predicting the future • What was the “Little Albert” experiment? • Conducted by Watson & Rayner • Presented a white lab rat (NS) & Albert played with it • Goes to touch rat → loud noise sounds (US) → crying (UR) • Researchers paired the noise with behavior of touching rat • Seeing rat (CS) → crying (CR) • Showed generalization of fear to other white furry objects ( ex: fur coat, santa mask) • What was the result of “Little Albert” & why was it unethical? • Determined that fear, a much more complex behavior response than salivation, could also be conditioned • Unethical bc didn’t use counterconditioning (conditioning new responses to counteract undesired associations) • What is the amygdala? • Region of brain next to hippocampus in medial temporal lobe • Plays role in fear association & other emotional learning • What is preparedness? • Biological disposition to learn some associations more quickly than others ( ex: tendency to learn phobias) • What is vicarious classical conditioning? Provide an example • Learning a conditioned response by observing another organism’s experience ( ex: monkey fears snake after watching a video of a monkey negatively reacting to a snake encounter) • What is conditioned taste aversion? • Tendency to associate nausea (UR) with food (CS) rather than with other environmental factors • What are the operant conditioning ABCs? • Antecedent (stimulus that precedes behavior), Behavior, & Consequence • What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect? • Behavior followed by pleasant state → higher likelihood of recurrence • Behavior followed by aversive state → lower likelihood of recurrence • Who created the “Operant Chamber” & what experiment coined this term? • B.F. Skinner • Placed rat in box → bumps lever → food comes out → over time, starts to figure out lever leads to food (behavior leads to desired response) • What are the types of reinforcement/punishment?

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• Positive reinforcement: giving something to increase behavior ( ex: press lever → get food) • Negative reinforcement: taking something away to increase behavior ( ex: answering question in class → teacher leaves you alone) • Positive punishment: adding stimulus to decrease behavior ( ex: press lever → loud noise plays) • Negative punishment: taking away stimulus to decrease behavior ( ex: press lever → remove food) • What is shaping? • Reinforcing closer & closer approximations to the desired behavior • Name & provide examples of interval reinforcement schedules • Fixed interval: reinforced after particular amount of time ( ex: paychecks every 2 weeks) • Variable interval: reinforced after varied amount of time ( ex: working informally for someone & getting paid at random times) • Name & provide examples of ratio reinforcement schedules • Fixed ratio: reinforced after specific # of responses ( ex: you answer 20 questions & get a score) • Variable ratio: reinforced after varied # of responses ( ex: gambling; rewards are unpredictable so you keep going until you “win”) • What type of reinforcement/punishment is best when changing behavior quickly vs. wanting long-lasting change? • Quick: continuous reinforcement/punishment • Long-lasting: variable-ratio reinforcement/punishment • What are some limitations to classic perspectives? • Organisms are predisposed to pick up on some pairings & not others ( ex: birds easily associate illness with visual cues) • What idea did Garcia & Koelling’s rat & water study result in? • Animals forge meaningful links between stimuli that are most relevant to their environment • What was Tolman’s experiment and what did it result in? • Experimented with rats in mazes • Realization that organisms make cognitive maps without needing reinforcement or needing to express a behavior • What was Albert Bandura’s experiment & what does it support? • Had kids watch TV of an adult interacting with a Bobo doll • Children were left alone with the doll and engaged in the same behavior as the adult • Supports social learning theory (observational learning) • What are the 4 main processes of social learning theory? • Attention: first step to imitation • Retention: storing information in mind • Motor reproduction: learner physically imitates actions

• Reinforcement: praise for skill will result in repetition • What are primary vs secondary reinforcers? • Primary: innately satisfying bc they meet a biological need (ex: food, drinks, sex) • Secondary: learned & acquire value through association of primary (ex: money) • What is Premack Principle & an example of it? What is another name for it? • Activities someone frequently engages in can be used to reinforce activities that the person is less inclined to do • Ex: “you can’t eat your dessert (preferred behavior) unless you eat your vegetables (less preferred) • Also called relativity theory of reinforcement • What is delay discounting? Provide an example • Tendency to underplay the important of delayed consequences, guiding people towards more impulsive/poor choices • Ex: eating candy with its immediate reinforcing sweetness, even though it causes cavities (delayed punishment) • What is instinctive drift? • When an animal reverts to evolutionarily derived behaviors instead of demonstrating the newly learned response • What is contingent reinforcement? What type of learning typically reflects this? • A specific response is reinforced because it yields a desirable change to the environment • Reflected in operant learning • What was Skinner’s pigeon study & what did it result in? • A reward was delivered to pigeons on a fixed-interval schedule, no matter what behavior they were doing • Resulted in superstitious conditioning • What are superstitious behaviors & why does it happen? • Behaviors that develop after coincidental reinforcement begins & increases during intervals between reinforcement • Why : our brains try to extract meaningful patterns, resulting in inventing a pattern when none really exists • What is latent learning? Whose experiments resulted in this idea? • Occurs without any incentive/reinforcement to learn • Tolman’s experiments • What is insight learning? • Learning without trial & error or reinforcement; solution tends to spring abruptly to mind • What was Wolfgang Kohler’s chimpanzee study? What idea did it contribute to? • Hung bananas out of reach of the chimps

• After realizing they couldn’t reach, they searched for alternatives (i.e. used 2 attached sticks to knock the bananas down) • Contributed to insight learning; they came up with a solution on their own • What are mirror neurons? • When we watch others perform actions, our brains internally mirror these actions • How were mirror neurons discovered? • Researchers were recording electrical activity in premotor cortex of monkeys while they reached for food • Monkey noticed a lab member eating ice cream • Result : neurons that fired when the monkey ate food also fired when they observed the human eating • What is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation? (TMS) • Stimulates & temporarily disrupts brain activity in an individual’s primary motor cortex, which interferes with observational learning • What are the 2 types of cultural transmission? • Vertical: transferring knowledge/skill from adult to child (across generations) • Horizontal: social learning within the same generation, such as among peers • What is a diffusion chain? • Individuals learn a behavior through observing a model, and they become a model from which others can learn • What is dual-inheritance/gene-culture coevolutionary theory? • Cultural learning may have driven brain & cognitive specialization (& even anatomical changes) over the last few hundred thousand years

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Ch 7: Memory • What is Memory? • Maintaining information over time; connected to learning • Changes in the brain that result from past experience & influence the way we think, feel, behave • What are the 3 steps to remembering information? • Acquire Information ( Encoding ): perceiving info • Store Information: maintenance of encoded info for later access • Retrieve Information: accessing info stored in brain from past experience • What are the 3 memory systems? What is this model of memory called? • Sensory : works on subconscious level; impressions of sensory information that persist after original stimulus has ended • Working (Short-Term): conscious holding of information in storage/current awareness (info you’re using right now) • Long-Term • Called the Multistore Model of Memory • What is Capacity vs. Duration? • Capacity: how much info can be maintained • Duration : how long info stays • What are the 2 types of Sensory Memory? • Visual (Iconic Memory): duration is less than 1 second; has a fairly large capacity • Auditory (Echoic Memory): duration is less than 4 seconds; has a fairly large capacity • How do we know that Sensory memory exists? • Researchers flashed screen with 12 letters for less than 1 second • Asked participants to repeat the letters they saw • Some could report 3-4 letters, but knew that they saw more than that • Who was George Sperling? What was his study? • Cognitive scientist • Studied partial report condition • Flashed screen with letters for 50 milliseconds • Played auditory tone (high, medium, or low) which indicated a line to be remembered (top, middle, bottom) • No matter what level of the tone, people could repeat the cued line • Result : when you give them partial cues, they can remember almost all the letters • What is a real-life example of sensory memory; specifically auditory? What does this mean? • You’re at a party & there are conversations around you that you don’t pay attention to. If you hear someone say your name in one of those surrounding conversations, it alerts your attention • What this means: at some level, you’re always acquiring/encoding auditory info • Short-Term Memory is “post-categorical”. What does this mean? • Info is processed to the degree of understanding what category of object we are sensing, not the specifics

• What is the phonological loop? What process involves this? • Similar to hearing your inner voice • Holding memory in STM involves this • What is a visuo-spatial sketchpad? • Your mind’s eye; allows you to see mental images • Supports access to visual information • What is the “magic number” of capacity? What is this specifically? • 7 + or - 2 units • This is how much info we can hold in working memory at a time • What a “unit” is defined as varies depending on individual experience • What is Chunking? • Grouping information in meaningful ways to hold more in working memory • Varies depending on experience • Describe a study conducted on chunking & its result • Show chess experts & novices chess boards and have them memorize chess piece location • Average player can recall about 7 & experts can remember almost all • Result: how individuals group info is dependent on knowledge & experience • What was Hermann Ebbinghaus’ study? • Experimented on how info gets from working to long-term memory • Used nonsense syllables (ex: rilf, blick, scorb) • Studied how well individuals could remember lists, for how long, & what factors influenced memory • Conducted similar studies with actual words • What concepts resulted from Herman Ebbinghaus’s studies? • Recency effect: we have good memory of items at the end of lists; still in working memory • Primacy effect: we have good memory of items at beginning of list (more opportunity to rehearse them & transfer to LTM) • What is the Serial Position Curve? • Graphed curve of a participant’s recall ability • Shaped like a smile and involves primacy/recency effect • What were Craik & Tulving’s experiments & what was the result? • Studied engagement & deep processing • Participants listened to words & answered 1 of 3 types of questions about each word (appearance, sound, meaning) • Afterwards, gave surprise memory test for the words • Result : attributing meaning to the words had greatest recall, then sound, then appearance • What is Implicit Memory? • Non-declarative; created & stored outside of awareness • expressed/measured via behavior/learning • Ex: remembering how to ride a bike (behavior) • What are the 2 types of Implicit Memory?

• Procedural: type of implicit memory that can be habitual ways of thinking (ex: doing multiplication or reading) • Priming: process in which previous exposure to stimulus enhances a person’s processing & response to that stimulus when it is presented again • Occurs without need for deep processing • What study shows evidence of priming? • Expose people to a long list of words (ex: sample, table etc…) • Later, present them with parts of the words they saw (SAM _ _ _, TAB _ _ etc…) & other words that they hadn’t seen • When asked to complete the words, the first words that come to mind tend to be ones they’d seen before • What is explicit memory? • Declarative; retrieval involved intentional remembering • Often expressed via language • (ex: remembering your first bike ride; time, place, & color of bike) • How do we know there’s a difference between implicit/explicit memory? • FMRI (shows what brain regions are active for each form; they activate diff parts) • Individuals with neural disorders who lose certain memory function • Infants & children who have some memory capacity & not others • What was Rovee Collier’s experiment with implicit memory? How do we know this is implicit? • Tied a ribbon to infant’s leg & then to mobile • Infant kicks to make mobile move & learns control • 2 weeks later, show infants the mobile again, they will start kicking more than the first time • Implicit bc it’s behavior & occurs after a delay so it can’t be sensory • What is Rehearsal? • Process by which we consciously maintain events using our working memory • What is Neural Persistence? • Continued activity in neurons after a stimulus ceases, which rapidly fades • Supports sensory memory • When something moves, we don’t see it as a new object. We see it as a continuation of our prior perception of the same object • What are digit-span tasks? What are the two types? • Participants see/her sequence of digits & are asked to recall, with increasingly longer sequences being tested • Tests maintenance component of memory • Simple tasks: require you to maintain info • Complex tasks: require working memory system to actively manipulate other information (ex: doing math problems in between trying to remember letters) • Who was Henry Molaison? What was learned from his situation? • Man who developed severe epilepsy • Had lobes in both hemispheres removed (including amygdala & hippocampus) • Destroyed his ability to convert new experiences to LTM

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• What was learned: hippocampal structures are critical for laying down new conscious memories • What is Anterograde vs Retrograde amnesia • Anterograde (“forward”): inability to transfer memory from short term to long term • Retrograde (“backward”): impairs access to memories prior to date of brain damage, but can place new experiences in LTM • What is the concept of levels of processing? What are the two types? • Concept that encoding is an active process, which can occur at multiple levels from shallow to deep • Shallow encoding: uses appearances (how something sounds/looks) • Deep encoding: processing info involving significance & meaning • What are 2 types of deep encoding? • Elaboration: making associations between new & old info already presented in your brain (ex: meeting someone whose name is Sandy, & making association with a sandy beach to remember the name) • Semantic encoding: operates on meaning of events & yields better memory (ex: associating a particular month with certain people’s birthdays) • Where do deep & shallow encoding occur in the brain? • Deep: higher brain regions such as frontal & temporal lobe regions • Shallow: regions related to sensory perception (ex: occipital lobe) • What is self-referential encoding? Where does this occur in the brain? • Capitalizes on self-fascination; results in strong memory for events that are encoded relative to our self-concept • What is a mirror-drawing task? What does it demonstrate? • Trace a shape on paper but only while looking at reflection of the page & your hand through a mirror • Demonstrates separation of implicit & episodic memory • What was Clive Wearing’s situation? What does it show? • Musician & conductor who contracted herpes simplex encephalitis • Resulted in severe anterograde & retrograde amnesia • Could still play music if it’s put in front of him • Shows that retrograde amnesiacs may retain skills despite total loss of explicit memory having learned them • What is Affective Conditioning? How did neurologist Edouard Claparede test this? • A previously NS acquires positive or negative value • Ex: greeted a patient with amnesia daily who never remembered him • Once, hid a pin in his hand so he pricked the patient while shaking her hand • Next day, she didn’t remember him but hesitated to shake his hand (implicitly remembering the pain) • The NS (greeting the patient) gained neg. value (pricking/pain) • How do studies show evidence of fear conditioning of bodily response to aversive stimuli? • In a study with amnesia, individuals’ sweating response showed implicit memory that a certain color predicted an aversive noise burst

• No functioning hippocampus, but still showed fear response (sweating) to aversive stimuli (loud noise) • What are perceptual & visual priming supported by? • Visual: supported by decreased neural activity in visual cortical regions • Suggests that brain finds repeated images easier to process • Perceptual: supported by face-sensitive regions in fusiform cortex • What is episodic memory? • Involves explicit recollection of personal experience that requires piecing together elements of specific time/place; hippocampus is critical • Ex : what did you have for lunch yesterday? • What is semantic memory? • Explicit memory supporting your knowledge about the world, including concepts & facts • What is an example that shows episodic vs. semantic memory? • You might know the capital of the U.S. ( semantic ) but do you remember when/where you learned this ( episodic ) • What is the difference between remembering & knowing? • Remember: can recall context in which you learned something, but not the fact itself • Know: can recall fact, but not the context in which you learned it • What is evidence of the distinction between episodic & semantic memory? • Children without a normally functioning hippocampus can learn and remember knowledge readily. • What is semantic dementia? • Loss of memory for meaning in both verbal & nonverbal domains following progressive degenerative disorders (e.g. alzheimer’s & frontotemporal dementia) • What are some struggles that people with semantic dementia face? • Have difficulty finding words, impaired comprehension, & impaired ability to recognize relationship between semantically related pics (ex: open vs closed umbrella) • Can alter understanding of emotions associated with difficulty to label one’s feelings ( alexithymia ) • What is semantic satiation? • Repetition of a word can make that word sound meaningless • Similar to experience of semantic dementia • Who was K.C. (Kent Cochrane)? What did his situation show? • Man who suffered anterograde/retrograde amnesia after motorcycle accident • Could still report saddest day of his life (his brother drowning) which occurred years before the accident • Had no conscious episodic memory of this event; couldn’t describe the memory, but could state that his brother had died • Showed further evidence that hippocampus is necessary for detailed memories of experience, not mere facts • What is retrospective vs prospective memory? • Retrospective: remembering things we’ve done in the past • Prospective: remembering things we need to do in the future

• These 2 types aren’t completely independent ( e.g. older people who can no longer provide many details about what happened in their past also can't recount details about what might happen in the future) • What is Consolidation? How did it originate & what enhances it? • process where memory storage is stabilized & strengthened • Occurs after experiences have passed • Originated from observations about how memory can be disrupted by info presented shortly after learning • Enhanced by sleep • How does consolidation affect the retrieval of memories? • Brain might not be able to retrieve the exact same memory twice • Reconsolidation: retrieving a memory returns it to an unstable state, making it vulnerable to change • How is reconsolidation shown through classical conditioning? • Day after rats learned to associate a tone with a shock, the tone was represented without the shock • After the tone, a drug that blocks LTM formation & consolidation was injected into amygdala • When tested 24 hours later, injected rats showed less fear response • Why: original fear memory had been altered/forgotten • What is electroconvulsive therapy (ETC)? • Type of therapy that dislodges recent memories, showing that newer memories might still be in consolidation. • Retrieving a memory then experiencing ECT results in selective targeted forgetting • What are memory traces? • Neurons contain remnants of past communications • What is Hebbian Learning? • Cells that fire together, wire together; used to train some neurons • Repeated presentation of 2 stimuli together strengthens one neuron’s ability to excite the other • Contributes to process of forming LTM • What is Long-term Potentiation? (LTP) • Enduring enhanced form of communication between neurons • Most likely cellular mechanism supporting LTM • What is CREB • A protein that represents the molecular basis of memory • Critical for some “memory hacks” that enhance learning (e.g. spaced learning) • Why do emotional memories endure longer than neutral memories? • Released stressed hormones increase LTP & consolidation (e.g. adrenaline) • Arousal enhances LTM • What is Urbach-Wiethe syndrome? What do individuals with this syndrome experience? • Genetic condition in which brain doesn’t develop an amygdala • Individuals show normal LTM for neutral events, but don’t show emotional boosting of memory

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• What is evidence of the inaccuracy of flashbulb memories? What is the explanation behind this? • Studies of memories surrounding 9/11 show that these memories change over time rather than being permanent records • Explanation: emotionally arousing events are perceived as more vivid during initial experience, & this perception is associated w/ confidence in the memory • What is free recall? Provide an example • Accessing info from memory without any cues to aid retrieval • Ex: if you were shown a list of 30 words yesterday & were asked to recall as many as you can today, you would probably forget it all • What are retrieval cues? What is a study that shows their effect? • Information related to stored memories helps bring memories back to the mind • Study: participants are given list of words that fall into categories (e.g. foods, countries) • Wrote down all they can remember by free recall • Researchers provide name of categories as retrieval cues • Result: retrieval cues boost recall (this is called cued recall) • What is recognition memory? • Form of retrieval relying on identifying info that you’ve previously seen/experienced (e.g. recognizing a classmate’s face) • What is the encoding specificity principle? What is an example of it? • Idea that retrieval is best when the present context recreates the context where info was originally encoded • E.g. if you sit in the same seat every lecture, the location will serve as a retrieval cue for the material during an exam • What is the doorway effect? • Simple act of walking through doorways influences memory retrieval because the context changes • E.g. you leave a room to get something, then you forget what you were going to get • What is state -dependent retrieval? • Increased likelihood of remembering something while in the same mental state during both encoding & retrieval (e.g if you study for an exam while drunk, when you’re drunk again, you’ll remember the material) • What is mood-dependent retrieval? • Encoding specificity related to emotional states • E.g. more likely to recall events encoded during a sad mood when you’re sad again at retrieval • What did Hermann Ebbinghaus’ studies on the nature of forgetting show? • Memories are not forgotten at a constant rate over time • Course of forgetting is initially rapid then levels off (forgetting curve) • What is the trace decay theory? • If a person doesn’t access/use a memory, the trace will weaken over time & be less available for later retrieval • What is the interference theory of forgetting?

• Forgetting in LTM is not related to the passage of time; rather, interference created by integrating new & old information in the brain as time passes • What are retroactive & proactive interference? • Retroactive: new learning disrupts recall of old info (e.g. after changing your phone passcode months ago, you can’t remember your old password) • Proactive: old learning disrupts recall of new info (e.g. you can’t learn your new number bc the old one is stuck in your head • What is negative vs positive transfer? • Negative: past memories are detrimental to how well you can learn presently; forgetting old info can minimize interference (e.g. forgetting where you left your bike yesterday will help you find it better today) • Positive: old info can enhance learning of new info (e.g. parking in the same place every day for a week makes you more likely to remember where you parked) • What is Hyperthymesia? • Syndrome where person remembers nearly every event of their life with great precision • What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon? • Failure to retrieve info despite confidence that it’s stored in memory • What is motivated forgetting & repression? • Motivated forgetting: intentionally trying to forget info so that you’re less likely to retrieve it later • Repression: controversial defense mechanism against remembering a traumatic event • What is encoding failure? • Occurs when info never makes it into LTM • What is weapon focus? • Failure of encoding in eyewitness testimony where central important details (e.g. gun) are encoded but peripheral info (e.g. license plate) are not • What is change blindness? • Inattentional blindness in which people fail to notice changes in visual stimuli • What is the misinformation effect? Whose study showed this? • Decreased accuracy of episodic memories due to info provided after the event • Elizabeth Loftus: participants were shown series of pics (e.g. car stopped in front of a stop sign) • Some participants read descriptions of what they saw that contained misinfo (e.g. car stopped in front of a yield sign, not a stop sign) • Those exposed to misinfo were more likely to report seeing a yield sign • What is imagination inflation? What study shows evidence of this? • Boost in confidence associated with imagining misleading info • Study: participants were presented with 4 events that supposedly happened to them in kindergarten (3 true, 1 false about getting lost in mall) • Immediately recalled details of events, then one week later were asked to recall events again • 25% remembered event of getting lost in mall as something that happened to them • What is source memory? • Ability to recall context in which we acquired a memory

• Source amnesia is the opposite of this • Provide an example of error of source monitoring & error of reality monitoring • Source: forgetting whether source of our facts come from an article or news feed • Reality: forgetting where we experienced or imagined an event • What is Deese-Roediger-Mcdermott (DRM)’s false memory paradigm & what is it used for? • Participants are read a list of words and asked to recall as many as possible • Will often recall related words that were never presented • Used to induce false memories in a lab • What is Infantile Amnesia? What is an exception to this concept? • Inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories from the first few years of life • An exception: memories of traumatic events • What is the reminiscence bump? • A time between adolescence & early adulthood where prominent memories are made

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