Bees Exam 2 &3 Quizzes
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CUNY College of Staten Island *
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Course
BIO-720
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Electrical Engineering
Date
Feb 20, 2024
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54
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How is paint used in experiments dedicated to decipher the honey bee dance language?
-
experimenters apply a drop of paint to bees visiting feeders, and different feeders are
assigned different color paints
"The position of the sun in the sky varies throughout the day and honey bee workers can keep
track of those changes "
-
This is true. Even though workers do not have a wrist watch, they have an internal clock
which allows them to keep track of time
In an experiment we discussed, Karl von Frisch took colonies containing dancing bees and
manipulated the combs - in half of the colonies he left the dancefloor combs vertical, and in the
other half he flipped the dancefloors so that they were horizontal. What did he observe about the
dances of the manipulated bees?
-
They continued to dance, but the dances did not direct observer bees to the correct
location.
In one experiment we discussed in lecture, Karl von Frisch trained forager bees to come to a
feeder full of sugar water 750 meters from the hive, but also placed feeders at various distances
between 100m and 2km from the colony. Most of the recruits came to the feeders at 700, 750,
and 800 meters from the hive, flying right over some identical feeders that were closer to the
hive. What did his experiment demonstrate?
-
Honey bees are able to communicate the distance from their nest to a food resource.
Why is it so useful for honey bees to have a dance language that lets them recruit their sisters to
food resources?
-
Food resources are often unevenly spaced in the landscape, and a colony must be able to
harvest food from a patch before it is discovered and harvested by another colony or
another species.
Evaluate the following statement: "The western honey bee, Apis mellifera, is the only bee
species that can recruit nestmates to food resources by giving physical signals that indicate the
location of food."
-
False. Other honey bee species use a dance language, and distantly related social stingless
bee species also use more rudimentary communications to point out high quality food.
Two forager bees are dancing on their colony's dancefloor. Bee 1 turns so that she is facing
downwards and does a loud buzz walk/waggle for 1 second. Then she turns to the left, walks up
the comb, and repeats her buzz walk. Then she turns right, walks up, and repeats it again. Bee 2
follows the exact same patterns, dancing straight downwards, turning, and repeating. However,
when she does her downwards buzz walk/waggle, she does it for 2 seconds each time.
Question 1: If a new forager is recruited by these dancers, in which direction will she fly after
leaving the nest/hive?
-
Directly away from the current position of the sun.
A bee hive is sitting in a field. The sun is setting directly due West. A forager bee performs the
following waggle dance (only the buzz walk/waggle run is illustrated). A recruit bee who
decided to follow this dance would leave the hive and fly
-
Directly North
What information do foragers communicate to potential recruits as they dance in the nest. Check
all that apply.
-odor, location, sugar concentration in nectar, taste
Which of the following is NOT a real signal produced by honey bees?
REAL SIGNALS
-
A "piping" signal, that queens sometimes emit to summon each other to fights to the
death.
-
A "stop" signal that a worker can use to interrupt and suppress a waggle dancer by
headbutting her.
-
A "grooming solicitation" dance that dirty bees perform to ask their sisters to help clean
them.
NOT REAL SIGNAL: A "bear" dance that bees perform to signal the presence of a dangerous
hive predator like a bear, (or a skunk, or a honey badger, or any other kind of large predator.)
When observing honey bee hives at Dilmun Hill Farm with Bee Club, you see a worker bee
pointing her abdomen up, exposing a spot towards the end of her abdomen by the entrance of the
hive. You tell the others observing with you who are not taking ENTOM 2030 that she is…
-
Exposing her Nasanov Gland to communicate with other members of her hive
What can possibly convince thousands of worker bees to gather on a human being without
stinging that human
-
The human clothing was sprayed with a synthetic version of the queen pheromone or has
at least 1 live queen hidden
"Arnhart glands are found at the tip of antennae. These glands produce a pheromone blend that
marks flowers that were visited by a worker"
-
False Arnhart glands are found at the tip of the legs.
Pheromones are chemicals used for communication between members of the same species.
-
True, and they are used by many different insects, not only by honey bees.
"The queen mandibular pheromone is a blend of 5 chemicals that has both a releaser effect and a
primer effect."
-
True, and it is the most important queen pheromone, though there are others that can be
found in the "queen signal"
Acherontia styx, the death's head hawkmoth, is able to bypass the guards at the entrance of the
colony, and to steal the honey, while being for the most part ignored by surrounding worker bees.
Given what we covered in lecture today, which of the possible explanations for this peculiar
ability listed below is correct?
-
These moth "smell" like standard honey bee workers (they harbor cuticular hydrocarbons
that can "pass" as bee-like) thus guards assess them as probable nestmates
Which of the following is NOT true about chemical communication in honey bees?
-
Pheromones are the only form of communication described in honey bees.
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This figure shows results of an experiment in which scientists applied voltage to strapped worker
bees (to simulate a threat) and looked at the alarm response (sting extension). What can be
concluded from the results?
-
The presence of smoke does not significantly reduce sting extension.
This figure shows results of an experiment in which scientists applied voltage to strapped worker
bees (to simulate a threat) and looked at the alarm response (production of a droplet of venom).
What can be concluded from the results?
-
The presence of smoke significantly reduces the production of venom droplets.
What is a honey bee swarm?
-
The old queen bee and several thousand workers (~10,000). They leave the parental nest
and establish a new home elsewhere.
What is the function of scouts in a swarm of honey bees?
-
Swarms establish a bivouac (usually on a branch) while a new home is found. Scouts are
workers that look for possible new homes for the swarm.
What is the mechanism that honey bees use to "vote" in their so-called "democracy"?
-The waggle dance
"Streaker bees" quickly fly in long, straight lines above or through a moving swarm. What is
their function?
-
They’re scouts, and they must "point" the rest of the swarm in the direction of the new
nest because most bees in the swarm have no clue where they are going
What is the function of the Nasonov gland found in the tip of the abdomen during the swarming
process?
-
When workers arrive at the new nest site, they stick their Nasonov glands in the air and
fan their wings over it to attract the rest of the swarm to the correct location
We've talked about the importance of "diversity" in group decision making processes, like the
value of different approaches in the jellybean contest, but scout honey bees all share the same
mother (the queen) and may even have the same father (one of the drones that mated with the
queen) so they are all genetically related and may even be almost identical to each other... What
important "diversity" do these very similar bees bring to the swarm's decision-making process?
-
Each scout bee has knowledge of different potential nest sites (once she has found some!)
How is a new nest selected?
-
Scouts explore possible nest sites and report back to other scouts in the swarm using the
dance language which conveys information about distance to site, direction of site, and
quality of site. When enough scouts advertise the same site, a quorum decision is made
and the bees fly to the new site
"Swarm intelligence" is a complicated topic, but what were the two main characteristics
emphasized in lecture to describe how swarm intelligence functions in many species?
-
Simple rules & Local information
According to the image which represents experimental data collected by Professor Tom Seeley
and his students, how many potential nest sites were discovered by the scout bees?
-
11
According to the image above which represents experimental data collected by Professor Tom
Seeley and his students, which nest site did the swarm decide to move to?
-
G
"The stigma is part of the plant's female reproductive apparatus while anthers are the plant's
male reproductive parts"
-
True, and pollen grains produced by the anthers need to land on the stigma then grow
pollen tubes to reach the ovary for eventual fertilisation to occur.
In what way(s) is it costly for a plant to reproduce with the assistance of pollinating insects?
-
Growing flowers is costly
-
Producing floral odors is costly
-
Producing nectar is costly
"Pollinators visit flowers to obtain a sweet reward, the nectar produced by nectaries in flowers"
-
False, because nectar is not the only reward offered by plants. Some of them offer oils
and resins.
“All flowering plants need animal pollination"
-
False, many flowering plants are cross pollinated by wind
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Compared to other animals, what makes bees superior pollinators for most flowers?
-
They have many "hairs" and those are electrostatically charged which favors pollen
collection and retention on the body
While most farmers, as well as the general public, believe that Apis mellifera, the Western honey
bee, is the sole or main pollinator of crops globally, research in the last decade, performed in
different continents, unequivocally show that wild bees often play an important role in crop
pollination. Why is this a VERY important result?
-
It means that food security hinges on conservation of MANY bee species, and this is
more complicated than saving ONE bee species
Pollination services by animals are essential for global food security
-
True because yield and quality for ¾ of all crops are significantly increased thanks to
animal pollination
How can one measure the importance of a given pollinator species for crop production?
-
You can measure crop production (seed weight for instance) in the presence of the
pollinator, and compare that production to a situation in which the pollinator is absent
Why is animal (=mostly bee) pollination essential for humans right now?
-
Because many crops that directly benefit from bee pollination are good for human health
(ex: vitamins) and enjoyment of life (ex: spices)
Honey bees contribute 34 billion dollars to US agriculture every year through pollination
services?
-
Not true, because non honey bee species are believed to contribute to half of that amount
honey bees are the only pollinators of tomatoes
-
Not true since honey bees cannot perform buzz pollination which is what tomatoes and
all Solanacea need
Honey bees are the main pollinators of alfalfa, which is one of the main foods of cattle in the US
thus providing meat and ice cream to many of us
-
This is not true since alfalfa flowers need to be "tripped" and honey bees do not like to be
hit in the head while foraging for nectar/pollen
What is the best way to avoid honey fraud, as a consumer?
-
Buy your honey local, from a beekeeper you know, (for example: at a farmer's market.)
How widespread is honey fraud?
-
It has been reported in North America, Europe and Asia
Why might fraudsters add high fructose corn (HFC) syrup to "real" honey?
-
HFC is cheap compared to "real" honey thus fraudsters can sell large amounts of a
product that is labeled "honey" and substantially increase their margins
Why is it difficult to identify honey fraud?
-
The best test, NMR, is expensive and technically challenging
Why is fraudulent honey currently often coming from China?
-
Because so many Chinese beekeepers are migratory beekeepers who sell their (often)
immature honey to unscrupulous local cooperatives/packagers/exporters
How would you describe this honey?
-
It is mostly based on collection, by honey bees, of honeydew from aphids/scale insects,
and it was not ultra filtered or heated
How do worker honey bees turn plant nectar/honeydew into honey?
-
They dehydrate the nectar/honeydew and modify its chemistry using enzymes.
The ease of care and beauty of azalea bushes makes them one of the most popular flowering
shrubs in landscape architecture in Asia, Europe and the United Sates. Why is "mad honey" only
produced in Asia then?
-
Because only some species of Azalea, grown in certain climates, contain high enough
amounts of Grayanotoxin for making "mad honey".
Honey color goes from water white to dark amber (see picture above). What primarily
determines the color of honey?
-
Mostly the plant nectar used by honey bees to make the honey. Buckwheat nectar leads to
very dark honey while acacia nectar leads to very light colored honey.
Compare these two bottles of honey. Why does the bottle on the left look so different?
-
The left bottle has honey that crystallized. This happens more or less quickly over time,
depending on the plant nectar used, the way the honey was processed
(heating/ultrafiltration or not) and the ambient temperature
What’s honey?
-
Mostly fructose and glucose, plus some other sugars, a small amount of
minerals/vitamins/phytochemicals/acids, and water (18%)
Why does honey NOT go bad?
-
because of its low water content, slight acidity, and presence of antibiotic compounds
(such as Hydrogen peroxide and methylglyaxol)
Why do honey bees store vast amounts of honey in their nest/hive?
-
They need this honey to feed their brood, keep the hive at a high temperature (34-36
degree celsius), and make wax
What is manuku honey?
-
Honey made from nectar of a shrub found in New Zealand and Australia. That honey
contains more antimicrobial components than other types of honey.
What makes raw honey special?
-
It was never heated or ultra filtered thus it still contains many pollen grains
Besides honey, which product of the hive is most widely used in the world?
-
Beeswax
"Beeswax is a by-product of honey extraction by Humans that has little value thus it is thrown
away 95% of the time"
-
False because many high value products can be made using beeswax
Why was beekeeping often practiced in European monasteries during medieval times?
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-
Because candles made from beeswax had great symbolic value and thus was favored by
the Roman Catholic Church at the time
Which of those ingredients is NOT part of MOST lip balms made by the company Burt's bees?
-
Honey
Browsing the wellness aisles, you stumble upon the spray bottle above. What is this spray based
on?
-
propolis, a mix of plant/tree resin and beeswax manufactured by worker bees and used as
a cement in their hives
Who is Burt Shavitz?
-
A NYC born individual who "fell" into beekeeping by chance, and started a multi million
dollar business based on beeswax after becoming romantically involved with a single
mom called Roxane
Why is beeswax particularly suitable for candle making compared to paraffin wax?
-
Because it is NOT derived from petroleum products (thus no toxic fumes) PLUS it has a
high melting point (thus less residue when burning)
Why is apitherapy, the medicinal use of products from the hive (honey, beeswax, pollen, royal
jelly, propolis) controversial?
-
Because very few scientific studies have found evidence that backs the bold claims made
by apitherapy proponents
Besides honey, which product of the hive is most widely used in the world?
-
Beeswax
"Humans presenting seasonal allergies to air-borne pollen could benefit from consumption of
local pollen, and that includes local raw honey since that honey contains many pollen grains
from local plant/tree species"
-
Possibly, but there is currently no evidence that this is the case, and it can be dangerous
Why do so many people in the world consume products based on royal jelly?
-
Probably because royal jelly is associated with the remarkable longevity and fecundity of
honey bee queens
How many honey bees are moved across the USA to the state of California every February for
the pollination of almond orchards?
-
more than 50% of all managed honey bees in the USA
"Beekeeping can be an important way to generate a side income in developing countries".
-
True, and many aid organizations have funded beekeeping in those regions
Is it possible to be a beekeeper with bees other than honey bees?
-
Yes, and there are many examples of beekeeping involving Melipona beecheii (a stingless
bee) in Central America
Many migratory beekeepers from Idaho, a very snowy and cold area of the USA (much more so
than Ithaca even!), keep their honey bees in cellars/hangars over the winter and then ship them to
California for the annual almond orchard pollination in late January on truck trailers when
temperatures are still barely around 0 degrees celsius. What are some arguments those
beekeepers use to justify how they manage their bees?
-
honey bees are not very active when it is cold thus it is easier to transport whole hives
-
honey bees kept in climate-controlled hangars/cellars are not tempted to forage and
generally reduce their overall activity so that they are less stressed
“Migratory beekeeping is unique to the United States of America"
-
False, because ancient Egypt practiced migratory beekeeping using the Nile river to move
honey bees in mud hives
What is migratory beekeeping?
-
A common practice among commercial beekeepers which consist in renting hives to
farmers in need of pollination of their crops when flowers are blooming
How many honey bees are moved across the United States of America every year
-
65% of all managed honey bees in the USA
What are the main types of beekeepers in the world?
-
hobby beekeepers, sideliners, and commercial beekeepers
Compare conventional beekeeping and natural/Darwinian beekeeping
-
they both focus on raising honey bees, usually Apis mellifera bees
Why are continental US-based beekeeper NOT extracting honey that can be certified as organic
by the USDA and FDA?
-
Because honey bees can forage in a large radius around the hive thus almost inevitably
encountering disallowed chemicals
Why is the rusty-patched bumble bee called a ghost in the making?
-
Because, like the passenger pigeon, it used to be a common species, yet recent sightings
have become uncommon
what could be causing the demise of the rusty-patched bumble bee?
-
They might have been infected by a pathogen brought by commercial bumble bees used
in greenhouses for tomato production
What kind of evidence is commonly used to suggest that the rusty-patched bumble bee species
might be an endangered species?
-
Its distribution range has been drastically reduced in the midWest and NorthEastern US
-
Attempts to find a specimen over 90 days within the historical distribution range of that
species were unsuccessful
Which of the following interactions between bee stressors can play a role in bee decline?
-
Pesticides & habitat loss= Pesticides can have significant non-lethal effects on bees.
These impacts could become more severe when reduced habitat quality leads to reduced
floral resource availability.
-
Climate change and Pathogens/Parasites and Pesticides= A warming climate may
increase exposure to invasive species, lead to the spread of novel pathogens, and decrease
habitat availability. Climate change may also lead to
-
Pesticides and Parasites/pathogen= Pesticides can impair the immune response of bees
and simultaneous exposure to sublethal doses of pesticides and pathogens can lead to
elevated levels of mortality in honey bees
Why is the current 30-45% annual overwintering loss of US hives (managed honey bees) a
concern?
-
Because this loss is unsustainable. It indicates undue stress on US hives, as well as more
work and costs for US beekeepers
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Are wild bees' populations declining?
-
There is evidence that several bee species, especially in Europe and North America, have
suffered a range contraction, and/or a reduction in local abundance. Some species may
even have gone extinct
AFB: type of bacteria: The american foulbrood
What is the most common course of action when AFB is detected in a hive?
-
Burn the whole hive
Why is it challenging and counterintuitive to create vaccines for insects such as honey bees?
-
Because insects do not have adaptive immunity thus no memory of past infections, and
thus no antibodies
Why is the queen honey bee essential for the distribution of the 1st vaccine approved in the US
for control of AFB in honey bees?
-
Because she is fed pieces of the pathogen that are then transmitted to her developing
eggs, and this "primes" her progeny against the pathogen
Which of the following species is NOT a mammalian pest or predator of honey bees?
-
Grey squirrel
What characteristic is shared by infestations of larval wax moths and larval small hive beetles?
-
The larvae tunnel through and beneath wax combs, eating and defecating.
Of the arthropod pests of honey bees, the most damaging to bee health (and the most
economically damaging) is the:
-
Parasitic mite Varroa destructor
Why can American Foulbrood spread through a hive and around an apiary so quickly?
-
Because bacterial spores are easily spread by nurse bees feeding infected and uninfected
brood, worker bees removing dead and gooey bodies, and drifting and robbing bees
moving between hives.
Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae are both microsporidian fungal pathogens of honey bees.
Their most noticeable symptom in infected hives is:
-
Dysentery (looks like rust)
What is Nosema Ceranae?
-
Another species of Nosema that is common in Asia on Apis ceranae. It has become the
main agent of Nosema infection in Europe. It is currently present in the US.
Small hive beetles are a nuisance because they make tunnels through the combs, partially
destroying them as a result.
-
False. SHB are a nuisance because they slime the combs. Also their feces can end up in
the honey.
Why is Nosema ceranae such a devastating disease for honeybees?
-
Because Nosema spores germinate in the epithelial cells that line the midgut. Their
proliferation in that tissue causes malnutrition (interference with absoprtion of nutrients),
inflammation, and even dysentery
Honeybees have a decent immune system and US honeybees could defeat most of their microbial
enemies on their own if US beekeepers gave them enough time to fight
-
Unlikely because honeybees deal with many environmental situations (pesticides, low
food diversity, etc.) that depress their immune system. Also, they regularly face new
enemies imported from Europe or Asia (like Varroa destructor and Nosema ceranae)
Lecture Notes:
Dance Language
Part 1. Simple dances & Acoustic signals
“Grooming dance”–elicits nestmates to help a bee groom =allogrooming
Shaking- “Buzzing runs” used to elicit swarming behavior– Piping queens
PEV- Why do queens engage in piping? What kind of information could they be
communicating?
Pipe to communicate they are ready, mature to mate with drones,
Main purpose: Communicate that the queen is out and ready to mate
-
Communication between queens
Part 2. Food recruitment in honey bees using the waggle dance
Finding floral resources in the landscape is difficult (spatial and temporal patchiness)
How do honey bees find new floral resources in the landscape?
1-Bees follow instinctual search algorithms to navigate scent plumes
2- honey bees use visual cues
-
Bees have excellent color vision (Except red)
-
Also assess for high contrast and brokenness to identify flowers
-
Taste determines the VALUE of the resource
→ Sugar concentrations can vary widely, e.g.: Pear nectar, 10% sugar; Clover nectar, >40%
sugar
» Individual flowers in a patch will vary – Some plants try to cheat!
» Patches will vary over: Time, Weather, Soil type, Moisture
PEV- What kind of information can a returning forager share with her sisters so that
THEY can find the food the returning forager is so excited about?
-Where the flowers are (direction, distance, quality, scent, taste)
NOT COLOR
Information needed and conveyed by returning foragers
1)
Direction
2)
Distance
3)
Quality
4)
Taste and smell
Historia Animalium (330 B.C.E.) by Aristotle
-
Bees recruit others to specific food sources
-
Observed bees making “dancing” movements
SCOUT: Finds new food sources & dances
RECRUITS: Follow dances & then forage
Karl von Frisch began work on the waggle dance in 1919
-
Began to pay close attention to dances performed by returning foragers
-
Dances very precise, with varying tempo and direction
Schematic representation of the dance observed (named "waggle dance”)
Waggle run
- Abdomen waggling and wing fluttering
-Angle repeated with respect to vertical, or gravity (here 20° right)
BUT what does it mean?
Von Frisch’s Experimental Evidence: Direction
1)
Put out an array of empty feeding stations
2)
Train foragers to one feed station (F)
3)
Fill all feeding stations with same food
4)
Collect new recruits to each (equidistant) feeding station
Angle between vertical & waggle run = Angle between sun & food source
von Frisch’s Experimental Evidence: DISTANCE
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(1) Train foragers to come to one feeding station 750 meters from the hive
(2) Count recruits arriving at stations at various distances (same direction, controlled for food
quality
Number of waggles per run correlates with distance to food source
-
more= farther 1s=1km
Dancers make frequent short stops in which the dance doles out samples of food to her audience
-
Taste and smell of the food conveyed
The waggle dance says:
1) DIRECTION- Angle of waggle run relative to gravity (“down”) is the same as angle relative
to sun’s position on horizon (azimuth)
2) DISTANCE- Number of waggles per run - Dance tempo (# of circuits per unit time)
3) QUALITY - The duration of the dance (total waggle runs)
4) TASTE AND SMELL- Dancer gives free samples of nectar
Honeybees engage in symbolic communication!
PEV- What happens when it is cloudy?
Honeybees can still locate the sun because they see polarized light, so normal dance
What happens on a windy day?
Info about distance is less precise
Not everybody was convinced
....
In 1967, American biologist Adrian Wenner launched an extensive challenge to Karl von Frisch's
theory that bees communicate to each other the direction and distance of food sources by a
symbolic dance language. Wenner and various collaborators argued that bees locate foods solely
by odors
-
Whatever honey bees are doing – it’s working (Seeley & Visscher 1988)
-
Allows honey bees to quickly exploit resources, before their discovery by other colonies
or other species
Part 3- How do bees “see” a dance in the dark hive?
• Wing vibrations produce a sound (strong air-particle oscillations) transmitted with 6 feet on the
comb
• Bees with clipped wings ineffective dancers
• Robo-bee!!!
– Produced bee dance movements
– If razor blade wings did not vibrate, dance ineffective
How do bees measure distance?
• von Frisch suggested energy burned during flight signaled bees the distance flown-WRONG
• Instead, bees use “optic flow” of landscape to measure distance. Bees use the amount of visual
information that goes past the bee's eyes while she's flying from the flower back to the hive that
she's using to estimate the distance.
Do all honey bees “speak the same language”? BTW, not all honey bees need a complicated way
to indicate direction (involving the angle between their body and the axis defined by gravity)
• In Apis florea
– Horizontal dances
– Orient waggle run directly at food source (pointing)
– Less sophisticated form of dance?
Pheromones
-
chemical that transmits information from one whole organism to another WITHIN THE
SAME SPECIES
-
In solitary animals, pheromones often transmit mating or territorial information, which
can be non-cooperative
In social insects these chemicals can be used this way but they also often serve purely
cooperative coordination purposes.
Main Pheromones in Honeybees
1. Queen’s pheromones
-
11-QMP (Queen Mandibular Pheromone)
-
12-Other pheromones
2. Worker pheromones
-
21-Nasonov pheromone
-
22-Alarm pheromone
-
23-Marking resources/Trail pheromone
3. Brood pheromones
4. Nestmate recognition/colony odour
Pheromones can have a Releaser and/or a Primer action
-
Releaser pheromones release a behavioral response that is mediated by the nervous
system. Releaser pheromones elicit an immediate behavioral response.
-
Primer pheromones alter endocrine, reproductive and neurological systems. Changes are
not immediate but occur in hours to days.
-
Many social insect pheromones are a blend of many components that can act BOTH as
releaser and as primer pheromones
Individual pheromones can work TOGETHER to control a specific behavior or function in the
colony
EXAMPLE 1: maintenance of sterile workers in the hive when a healthy queen is present
Adult Workers remain sterile as adults because of queen pheromones pervading the nest AND
the presence of brood pheromones
EXAMPLE 2: Queen pheromones and worker’s Nasanov pheromone are both needed to
maintain swarm’s cohesion
Queen Pheromones
-
Queen signal is chemically complex and emanates from multiple glands
Many of the compounds in the queen signal have low volatility thus needs to be transferred by
contact
-
Retinue behavior: workers surrounding, licking & feeding the queen
-
Workers then transfer the queen signal through trophallaxis to the rest of the colony
Summary of releaser & primer effects of the queen signal (alone or with other pheromones)
1). Releaser effect:
-Retinue behavior (to workers)
-Sex attraction during mating (to drones)
-Swarm stabilization (if combined with Nasonov pheromone from workers)
2). Primer effect:
-Inhibiting of queen rearing and swarming
-Simulating foraging and brood rearing
-Stimulating Hive functions such as comb building, food storage, and more
-Contributes to worker ovary suppression (if combined with Brood pheromones)
Queen Mandibular Pheromone (QMP)- blend of 5 components from queen mandibular gland
Role of QMP as sexual pheromones:
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Three of the 5 components of QMP are believed to play an important role in long-range as well
as short-range attraction and/or mating
Role of QMP in swarm cohesion and stabilization (along with worker’s Nasonov pheromone)
POLLEV: How could beekeepers use the QMP
QMP & beekeeping
1. Swarm attraction
2. Catching stray bees in extraction room
3. Temporary queen surrogate (ex: TempQueen strips)
Worker pheromones
-21. Nasonov/Scent Pheromone
-22. Alarm Pheromone: At least a dozen compounds mostly from the sting apparatus
(sting gland and 8Koschevnikov gland), including the high volatility compound isoamyl acetate)
(aka Isopentyl acetate) (banana/mango smell)
POLLEV: How does the use of a smoker reduce stinging by workers?
Why the smoker works is unclear and still debated
2018 study showed that smoke did not influence the probability of sting
extension but did affect whether a droplet of venom was released by the stinger
-23. Marking/Trail Pheromone
Chemically un-identified pheromones
Low volatility
during foraging workers mark flower with secretions from their tarsal and mandibular glands
Brood Pheromone
Produced by brood (larvae)
Low volatility (transfer by contact)
Ratios/concentrations of esters change as the larvae age
Effects of Brood Pheromone
●
Releaser- As cues for brood capping
-stimulate pollen collection
●
Primer- Inhibit worker ovary development
-Stimulate development of hypopharyngeal glands
-Increase royal jelly production
-Delay foraging and inhibit juvenile hormone levels
Nestmate/colony odour
-
Long-chained hydrocarbons (HC) coating the exoskeleton are a chemical signature that is
produced by a combination of genotype and physiology
Each colony has an individual colony odor
-
It marks the bees from that colony and is used to recognize “residents” versus foreigners
-
made of queen + diverse odors of the hive such as specific nectar/pollen used, type of
resin collected, etc.
-
absorbed in exoskeleton of each resident definitely effective in identifying non honeybee
but mildly effective in identifying robber bees
Decision making in swarms
-
Honey bees swarms: a very vulnerable status
Decision making by groups of individuals (aka collective decision-making) without leaders or
experts
-
There is no leader in honey bee colonies
-
The honey bee queen is a mother, not a monarch
-
There are no experts (no architect)
-
Yet the tasks needed are performed. Workers work problems and solutions out by
themselves, and end up with solutions that are beneficial for the colony
Problem solving in crowds: study by Francis Galton (19th-20th century)
• There was a weight judging competition taking place in the West of England at the Fat Stock
and Poultry Exhibition.
• A large oxen had been selected, people bought tickets and then they wrote on those tickets,
their name, their address, and how much they thought that oxen weigh after it had been killed
and dressed, the butchering process had begun.
What Francis Galton stumbled on that day in Plymouth was the simple, but powerful, truth that is
at the heart of this book: under the right circumstances, groups are remarkably intelligent, and
are often smarter than the smartest people in them. Groups do not need to be dominated by
exceptionally intelligent people in order to be smart. Even if most of the people within a group
are not especially well-informed or rational, it can still reach a collectively wise decision”.
Indeed, there are famous situations showing that collective decision making can have poor
outcomes → stock market bubbles, deadly stampedes
How do groups of individuals without leaders or experts accomplish sophisticated tasks
....
swarm
intelligence
-
Ex: Bridge Building by arm ants
• Ants use their bodies to build bridges (and other structures)
• Bridges provide shortcuts for marching workers
• Bridges often arise when the lead ants slow down and traffic builds up into clumps
• Ants feel when they’re being walked on, and remain locked to each other
• When the bridge isn’t being used, the ants in it will start moving and abandon the bridge
-
Ex 2: Common starlings flying as part of large aggregations = flocks
Flying in a flock in common starlings
• SIMPLE rules:
• “Don’t bump into your neighbor”
• “Don’t let anyone bump into you”
• “Don’t be left outside of the flock”
• “Go where your neighbors seem to be going”
• “If you see a predator, don’t go towards it”
• LOCAL information:
•
Decisions are made by individuals based on information acquired locally in real time
Characteristics of Swarm intelligence systems
• Groups composed of many individuals
• No individual has a complex plan
• There is no leader
• Interactions between individuals:
• Are based on simple rules
• Mostly use highly local information
• Group behavior or structure emerges from “self- organization” of many individuals taking
simple actions
• Evolution shapes individual (instinctual) behaviors because survival differs based on the
product that emerges from the individual behaviors
Decision making in honey bees assembled in a swarm
Swarm- 1 queen, ~ 10,000 workers
• a reproductive propagule in temporary location (ex: tree branch)
• must decide where to make its new home
• a LIFE OR DEATH decision
• search committee of 300-500 scout bees
• scouts fly off and find potential homes
Ideal home: Apis mellifera
High entrance > 15 ft
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Small entrance < 3sq in
Spacious cavity: 40 gallons
Sturdy cavity walls: live tree
Scouts advertise different sites that have explored while looking for perfect home
The scout bee’s behavior on the surface of swarms can be observed and recorded
The best site accumulates sufficient support first through strongest campaigning and positive
feedback
And the scouts who do not accumulate support eventually stop dancing
• When enough scouts at a potential site see many other scouts there at the same
time, the site is judged as having met the “quorum”
• Scouts will buzz to activate the rest of the bees on the swarm, which will take flight
• The scouts will serve as “streaker bees” to “point” the swarm in the direction of the new nest
• Once the site is found, many bees will fan pheromones from their abdomens
to attract the rest of the bees
Nasonov gland fanning at nest site
Is decision making in honey bees leading to a favorable choice for the colony?
Do swarms choose the best site? Yes! Well actually (4 out of 5 swarms observed)
With the right organization, democratic groups are remarkably intelligent, often smarter than the
smartest individuals in them. What is the right organization? Five Habits of Highly Effective
Hives
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Five Habits of Highly Effective groups of honey bees
1. scouts cooperate for the common good
2. scouts have no leader
3. scouts find and report a broad array of home sites
4. scouts conduct a vigorous debate to identify a winner
5. --scouts blend public discussion with private evaluations --winning option is judged best time
and time and time again
A summary of what Swarming is all about
• Bees swarm to reproduce
• Swarm “bivouacs” in temporary location (tree branch)
• Scouts search for potential nest sites (or continue searching)
• Scouts dance to report good nest sites
• Scouts observe dances being reported by other scouts and
evaluate the sites on their own
• When enough scouts at a potential site see many other scouts there at the same time, she will
judge the site as having met the “quorum”
• Scouts will buzz to activate the rest of the bees on the swarm, which will take flight
• The scouts will serve as “streaker bees” to “point” the swarm in the direction of the new nest
• Once the site is found, many bees will fan pheromones from their abdomens to attract the rest
of the bees
Pollination
What is pollination? What is cross pollination?
-
Bees are the most important pollinators
Animal (mostly bee) pollination is crucial for the planet and mankind
-
Animal pollination is an ECOLOGICAL SERVICE that supports many forms of life on
Earth by providing food and other resources.
• Food for wildlife: herbivorous insects, Song birds, Wild turkeys, Sage grouse, bear,
deer, giraffe, etc.
•Sustain plants involved in control of erosion, beautification, etc..
Animal (mostly bee) Pollination is important for the 3/4 of our crops
“One out of every three bites of food Humans take depends on an animal pollinator” (Ray, 2018)
“One third of the food we eat comes from pollination by Animals”
Animal (mostly bee) Pollination is not essential to keep Humans from starving
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-
But animal (mostly bee) pollination service contribution to the crop market output in
terms of US$ per hectare of added production is HUGE
-
Annual market value WORLDWIDE of crops directly attributable to animal pollination:
170 billion - 361 billion US dollars (depending on estimate’s technique and year).
-
Bee Pollination services contribute to nearly $34 billion in agricultural value in USA
Farmers in Maharashtra district were able to increase their onion seed and pomegranate yields by
17 percent and almost 35 percent, respectively WHEN THEY REDUCED PESTICIDE
TREATMENTS
Importantly, the farmers also saw their incomes increase, by 19 percent on average for onion
farmers and a staggering 42 percent for those growing pomegranates. These increased profits
were not only due to higher yields but also improved quality
New York crops dependent on bee pollination
Humans would not starve without animal-pollinated crops but they would be less healthy
• As much as 50% of production of plant sources of vitamin A requires bee pollination
• Disruptions in pollination have public health implications in some regions
• Annually vitamin A deficiency causes 800,000 deaths in women and children.
• Doubles risk of mortality from common conditions like measles, diarrhea, and malaria,
increases the risk of maternal mortality 4.5X
What is the specific contribution of honey bees to agriculture (versus wild bees)?
POLLEV: Guestimate the relative role of honey bees vs other bees in world’s pollination.
50-50
CU study in NY apple orchards
Lake Ontario
• Study from the lab of Dr Bryan Danforth (CU, Entomology). ALL results published in several
scientific journals Geneva
• They sampled 24 orchards
Collect (aerial netting)
• 15 min “Time trials”
• “General” collecting
• Label and barcode
• Identify to species
• Database (Biota)
• ~3000 specimens per year
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Each collected specimen was identify to species level, And Collections were permanently stored
in the CUIC
POLLEV: How could you prove that a particular insect plays a significant role in the
pollination of apples flowers ?
-Looked at the pollen that were on the bees
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On average, wild bees contribute 3,251 US dollars per hectare to the production of crops
worldwide – about the same as managed honey bees
Why is a diversity of bee species in the environment essential for optimal pollination?
Some flowers cannot even be effectively pollinated by honey bees!
Example 1: flowers that need buzz pollination
• ~ 15,000 flowering plants, including important crops such as tomatoes and peppers hide their
pollen in pouches on their anthers that can only be reached via very small openings
• To access this, females of certain bee species, such as bumble bees, have evolved to use a
technique known as sonication or ‘buzz pollination’.
-Anthers (with pollen)
-Petals of flower
-Pollen grains falling from anthers
• These specially adapted anthers prevent some insects from accessing the pollen
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(such as pollen-eating beetles, flies and non-buzzing bees), so that pollen is not lost
to inefficient pollinators and ‘pollen thieves’ (visitors that remove pollen but make little or no
contribution to pollination
Some flowers cannot even be effectively pollinated by honey bees! Example 2: flowers that
need to be “tripped”
• Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is an important food for domesticated animals and is the 3rd largest
crop in the US
• Like many legumes, alfalfa has a complex floral structure that requires “tripping” for successful
pollination.
• Honey bees, and many other bees, do not like to be pummeled with the reproductive parts of
flowers ...and they learn to access nectar without tripping the flower. Thus, they are ineffective
alfalfa pollinators
Honey and honey fraud
Honey is a saturated solution of carbohydrates
• About 18% water • About 81.5% sugar: • fructose 38% • glucose 31%
• maltose 7% • sucrose 1.5% • others 6% • About 0.5% protein, minerals, vitamins
• Some acids - mostly gluconic acid
• Various phytochemicals depending on the plant origin (flavonoids, terpenes, alkaloids, etc.)
potentially including antioxidants
How is honey made?
Step 1: Collection by foragers
How is honey made?
• Plant nectar
• Primarily from flowers
• Also extra-floral nectaries
• Honeydew, sweet excretions of insects (aphids, scale insects, etc.) feeding on phloem sap
Step 2: Processing by workers
Dehydration (to ~18% water content)
• Active evaporation: Regurgitation and exposure to air (a few minutes)
• Passive evaporation: Fanning in hive to further reduce water content of honey in cells
Chemical modification by honey bee enzymes
• Sucrase turns sucrose to glucose & fructose
• Glucose oxidase breaks down some of the glucose into gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide
Step 3. Storage in combs
Cells capped with wax when full
And sufficiently dehydrated
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POLLEV: Honey is not a welcoming environment for microorganisms. Why?
-Osmotic pressure (very saturated in sugar)
-Antibacterial (hydrogen peroxide and gluconic acid) → honey is acidic
-Lack of water
Making honey is hard work for honey bees To make 1 lb honey:
● Requires the work of about 550 foragers
● Bees visit 2,000,000 flowers
● Gather 8-10 lbs nectar
● Fly 55,000 miles
The life’s work of 1 bee = 1/12 teaspoon honey
What is honey used for by HBs?
● Food (bee bread for brood)
● Energy to fly for adults
● Keep the hive at high temperature in winter
● Make wax.
● To make 1 lb wax, need to consume 8-10 lbs honey
How do Humans extract honey and what are the different types of honey?
-Comb/chunk honey does not require extraction
Crush and strain extraction
POLLEV: What is the main drawback of the crush and strain technique?
-
Beeswax is destroyed and cannot be reused by honey bees
Extraction by centrifugation of combs
1.
Uncapping combs
2.
Centrifugation
3.
Filtration
The Flow Hive
-
Have cleverly designed plastic combs that most honey bees accept to use in lieu of their
own wax-based comb
-
Once extracted, honey can have a variety of labels attached and colors and consistencies
-
Raw honey vs highly filtered/processed honey
• Monofloral versus Polyfloral
POLLEV: Humans do not control honey bees as they forage in their environment. How is it
then possible to label a honey bottle “orange blossom honey”?
-
Label does not 100% represent the contents in the honey
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-
Marketing tactic: incentive for beekeeper
-
Certain times of the year they know the flowers are in season and extract the honey after
the flowers blossom
Forest Honey (aka honeydew honey)
-A significant source of the sugars used by the honey bees were coming from honeydew
produced by insects living on trees (like fir trees)
What have humans used honey for through the ages, and what are humans STILL using honey
for?
Humans used/use honey for food
• Honey as food
• The first sweetener (long before sugar cane, and sugar beets
• Our first alcoholic beverage (mead).
Note: not everybody agrees that it was the 1st alcoholic beverage
• Preservation of food. Most micro- organisms don’t grow in honey
Cosmetics
• Helps moisturize and hydrate the skin
• Has antioxidants that can help protect against damage from environmental stressors
• Can also have a soothing effect on irritated or inflamed skin
Humans used/use honey for Medicinal applications
• Ex: In Ancient Egypt, 147 out of 700 medicinal preparations from 1550 BCE called for honey
as one of the main healing agent
Honey has antimicrobial properties
-
Many studies show its effectiveness against the formation of biofilms (=thin and slimy
group of bacteria cells in which cells stick to each other and often also to a surface).
Antimicrobial properties vary
High sugar content-all honeys
• Low pH-all honeys
• Hydrogen peroxide-varies from one honey to another
• Non-peroxide activity-in some honeys only, ex: manuka honey
• Uses nectar from the mānuka tree Leptospermum scoparium (tea tree family), native to New
Zealand and Southeastern Australia
• Has large quantities of an antibiotic compound called methylglyoxal
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Bee Products
Beeswax
-
Modern use in cosmetics: creams, lotions, lipstick, lip balm, blush, eyeliner, etc.
-
Burt's Bees Company
POLLEV: What are some advantages of using beeswax for making a lip balm?
-
Longer shelf life, natural, safe, hypoallergenic, keeps moisture, environmentally friendly
Modern use in candle making
• Beeswax candles can be made by different methods: pouring, dipping,
rolling , extruding, drawing and pressing.
• Since beeswax has a higher melting point than most paraffin waxes (most
of which melt between 48 and 68°C) beeswax candles remain straight at
higher ambient temperatures.
Modern use as a Food additive and medicinal preparations
Beeswax is considered safe for human consumption and
has been approved as an ingredient in human food in the
USA. Also used in medicinal preparations
Part 2. Bee venom (Apitoxin)
• Remember what Apitoxin is?
• Composition
– Melittin (50% DRY WET)
• lysis of blood & mast cells - release of histamine and heparin from mast cells - depression of
blood pressure & respiration.
– Phospholipase A (12% dry weight)
• cell lysis - pain - toxicity; synergistic with melittin
– Hyaluronidase (<3% dry weight)
• hydrolyzes connective tissue - the spreading factor
– Histamine
• itching & pain
– Acid phosphatase
• Involved in allergic reaction
Venom collection:
Collected using platforms distributing a mild electric shock: cause bees to secrete venom without
losing their stinger
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Western medicine: mostly used for venom desensitization.
-
may become an anti cancer drug
Bee venom use in alternative medicine and traditional medicine (uses vary geographically)
-Venom injection claimed to help ease the symptoms of tendinitis, fibromyalgia, rheumatoid
arthritis, multiple Sclerosis (and several other autoimmune disorders), headaches, “chronic Lyme
disease”, etc
-Venom therapy is often applied through stinging by live bees in non-medical facilities
Royal Jelly
– the glandular secretions of young worker bees (4-10 days old), produced by the
hypopharyngeal glands in the head, and used as food for larval bees.
Composition (pH~4)
– 66% water
– 14% protein
– 14% carbohydrate
– 5% lipid (fats & sterols)
Royal jelly is harvested from queen cups placed in queenless colony
Collection of royal jelly is very labor intensive so various machines are developed
RJ widely marketed as a dietary supplement and as an alternative medicine $128 for 16 oz
Both the European Food Safety Authority and United States Food and Drug Administration have
concluded that the current evidence does not support the claim of health benefits,
• There have also been documented cases of allergic reactions, namely hives and asthma, due to
consumption of royal jelly.
Propolis
-mixture created by worker honey bees based on resin harvested from plants
-use as cement in hive
-inhibits fungal growth, reduces vibrations
Composition
-sap flow, resin, balsam
-beeswax and pollen
-varies widely depending on resin collected
-can have as many as 50 constituents
-collected by humans by placing propolis trap in hive
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• Uses by humans, in ancient times AND modern times
– 17/18th century: Propolis was purportedly used by Antonio Stradivari in the varnish of his
instruments.
– Today: Propolis is used by some string instrument makers (violin, viola, cello, bass) as a
varnish ingredient
Uses by humans in ancient times and modern times as part of Apitherapy
– Propolis has several components that could make it an effective therapeutic agent in humans
– there are several anecdotal reports of propolis as a good topical antibiotic and burn dressing
and even in use against gastric ulcers
– yet no clinical study has reliably tested the medical benefits of propolis other than in oral
hygiene.
Bees as food (entomophagy)
•Bee brood-the eggs, larvae or pupae of honey bees – has been consumed since ancient times by
the Chinese and Egyptian, Cambodian and Japanese
• Today, it is seen as a delicacy in Indonesia, Mexico, Thailand, Japan, and many African
countries
• Example: hachinoko in Japan
Pollen
-A plant reproductive structure that carries the plant sperm
-Brought back to the colony by foragers and the main ingredient in bee bread
-Collected by humans with pollen traps placed in hive
• Composition
• Protein: from 10 to 61%
• Lipids: from 1 to 20%, but usually <5%
• Sterols:<less than 0.5%
• PLUS: sugars, starches, vitamins, antioxidants and minerals
• Varies a lot from one plant to another
A popular claim: consumption of local raw honey (that has local pollen) as a kid (BEWARE:
child
must be >1 year old) can prevent future seasonal allergies (to pollen)
-
Don't give raw honey to kid less than1 year old
-
Con: trigger allergy in the child
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Beekeeping
a.
Types of Bees in the Industry:
i.
Apis mellifera: the Western honey bee, high adaptability to various
climates and high honey production.
ii.
Apis cerana: Eastern honey bee, native to South and East Asia, used in
traditional beekeeping in these regions.
iii. Melipona beecheii and other species: stingless bees, native to parts of
Mexico, Central, and South America. Traditionally kept in some regions
for their honey,
iv. Trigona species: stingless bees found in tropical regions of Australia,
Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Americas.
b.
Economic Values in the WORLD
i.
There were 101.62 million honey-producing colonies in 2020
ii.
Those colonies generated 1.77 million metric tons of raw honey.
iii. The global market for Apiculture was estimated at US$10.3 Billion in
2021 (not counting pollination services)
iv. Specifically in America:
1.
Anywhere from 115,000 to 125,000 beekeepers including 1,600
commercial beekeepers (who make 60% of the honey).
2.
There were 2.71 million honey-producing colonies in 2020
3.
Those colonies generated 1.48 million pounds of raw honey
4.
The beekeeping sector in the United States amounted to 717
million U.S. dollars in 2021 (not counting pollination services)
c.
Backyard Bee-Keeping (Hobby)
i.
Sub Hobby: urban beekeeping
ii.
Part time bee-keeping: sideliners
1.
A source of additional revenue in many developing countries
iii. Commercial Beekeeping
1.
Beekeepers derive a significant part of their income from
bee-related activities
2.
Generate Income Through:
a.
Pollination services: Farmers rent beehives to farmers.
Hives are transported to different locations depending on
the crop and season.
b.
Honey production: The honey is collected from the hives,
processed, and then sold.
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c.
Bee byproducts: beeswax, propolis, royal jelly, and bee
pollen
d.
Bee sales: breed and sell bees to other beekeepers,
including queens.
e.
Beekeeping supplies and education: manufacture and sell
beekeeping equipment, or provide classes/consultations to
novice beekeepers.
iv. Management Practices: Beekeeping Philosophies
1.
Conventional
2.
Natural/Darwinism
3.
Organic
v.
Typical Conventional Beekeeping:
1.
Standard Beekeeping Equipment: Langstroth hives
2.
Use of Treatments: to control pests and diseases within the hive,
such as mites or fungal infections. Can include synthetic chemicals
or medications.
3.
Supplemental Feeding: If necessary, provide supplemental feeding
to the bees, typically sugar syrup or pollen substitutes
4.
Swarm Control: actively manage their hives to prevent swarming,
vi. Natural Darwinism Beekeeping
1.
Allow bees to do their own beekeeping with minimal interference
2.
Key features are
a.
Allowance of natural behaviors such as swarming
b.
Minimal Interventions: fewer hive inspections, and less
supplemental feeding
c.
Natural treatment methods to control parasites and
pathogens
d.
Use of locally adapted bees : local bees and queen adapted
to local conditions
e.
Consideration of bees’ welfar
d.
BeeKeeping Around the World:
i.
Note that all subspecies of Apis mellifera in Kenya, even the monticola
and litorea, are very defensive
ii.
~80% of hives are log hives in Kenya (cheaper than Langstroth hives)
1.
And they are typically suspended in trees as a defense against
honey badgers
iii. A more modern Kenyan hive model (though more expensive) is a ONE
box, trapezoidal, top bar hive
1.
Typically placed on top of wooden sticks
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iv. Chinese commercial beekeepers tend to use Apis mellifera and their
beekeeping operation is typical of conventional beekeeping
v.
Some Apis cerana colonies are kept in traditional log hives covered in
mud and without removable frames
e.
Migratory Beekeeping
i.
The scale of migratory beekeeping is particularly HUGE in the US right
now
ii.
Why is Apis mellifera most often used for pollination services in
agriculture?
1.
Foragers invest time in learning about environment and adapt
2.
Polyphagous yet Flower constancy
3.
Honey bees are easier to manage and control
4.
Honey bees are easier to transport
5.
Honey bees are a superorganism, most wild bees’ survival based
on individual level
6.
Honey bees can be active year-round, most wild bees are only
active for a short time
7.
Honey bees’ ability to communicate and social cohesiveness
enhances foraging behavior
iii. 800,000+ acres of almonds bloom every year in Central California
1.
Almond varieties are self- incompatible
2.
Each orchard is planted with two, typically 3, different varieties of
almonds to allow cross-pollination
3.
Bees needed to move the pollen from one variety to another
4.
Need pollination services mid-February through mid-March
5.
require 1.6 million colonies of honey bees for pollination EVERY
YEAR
6.
No bees, no Nuts
Evidence of Bee Decline
f.
Is there really a decline?
i.
The number of managed honey bee colonies in the US has been steady or
increasing in the last 25 years
ii.
30-45% yearly colony loss in U.S. the past 6 years
iii. Winter losses can be replenished by splitting hives but
....
AT A COST!!!!
g.
Decline of Population:
i.
25% of North America bumble bees are in a threatened or near threatened
category
ii.
Four bumble bee species are considered critically endangered:
1.
B. affinis (rusty patched bumble bee)
2.
B. occidentalis
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3.
B. pensylvanicus
4.
B. terricola
h.
Main Stressors:
i.
Bees are doing poorly because:
1.
Agrochemicals
a.
Insecticides
b.
Fungicides
c.
Herbicides
2.
Especially novel pests and pathogens
a.
Invasive species, Pests & Pathogens
3.
Climate Change
a.
Range distribution
b.
Phenological mismatch
c.
Extreme events
i.
15% of all US honey bees were in areas affected by
Hurricane Ian in Florida (Fall 2022).
ii.
That hurricane decimated countless bee colonies
and starved the ones who survived
iii. Earlier snowmelt in Northern Japan led to flowering
of a spring ephemeral (Corydalis ambigua)
BEFORE its pollinator (bumblebees) emerged from
its overwintering shelter
iv. Restriction of range distribution to cooler parts of
the world
v.
The ranges of some bumblebees have begun to shift
in response to climate with European bumblebees
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tending to disappear from the southern edges of
their range
4.
Habitat Change (loss and fragmentation)
a.
Low diversity (or lack of) resources and nest sites
b.
Increasing fragmentation of habitats reduces levels of
pollination, the diversity of pollinator species and numbers
of individuals
c.
where cropland has increased, bee abundance has decreased
d.
removal native habitat by removing weeds and hedges
e.
Reduction of plant types available because of large fields of
monoculture, both spatially and temporally
f.
Deforestation to make room for crops
5.
Management Practice
a.
Stress of transport and poor management by some
beekeepers
b.
Beekeeping management practices can affect bee health
and survival
c.
take too much honey and give them sugary water instead
d.
not keep track of pests and pathogens and let those
populations increase
e.
keep hives in close proximity to each other
f.
not protect them enough in the winter
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g.
Mass transport to honey bees by migratory beekeeping:
i.
Transport across the US creates stress conditions
(oxidative stress level increases,Simone-Fistrom
2016).
1.
Especially the transport to California every
February
ii.
Yearly (must be active in February) and daily
(moved across time zones) rhythms are disrupted
(no data published)
ii.
Issues:
1.
Foragers collect ONE type of pollen for a few weeks, yet the brood
needs a VARIETY of pollen types
2.
Promotes national spread of parasites and diseases (esp. new ones!)
3.
Many Fungicides are applied to almond trees DURING Pollination
by honey bees
4.
Parasites and Diseases Lecture Slides
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a.
Main Stressor:
i.
Wild Bees:
1.
Agrochemicals
2.
Habitat Change
ii.
Honey Bees:
1.
Agrochemicals
2.
Invasive species, Pests and Pathogens
b.
Api Mellifera has many enemies
i.
A. mellifera has many enemies and the most serious ones are accidental
introductions by humans as part of the international trade. Example of the
situation in the US:
1.
Varroa - Mite
2.
American Foulbrood - Bacteria
3.
Deformed Wing Virus
4.
Nosema Ceranae - Fungi
ii.
Accidental Introductions Worldwide:
1.
Vespa velutina in Western Europe
2.
Tropilaelaps mites into Afghanistan, Pakistan, etc.
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c.
Macroscopic yet not too harmful pests
i.
Predators:
1.
Skunks
2.
Bears
3.
Badgers
4.
Mouse
5.
Woodpeckers and Bee Eaters
6.
Racoons
7.
ants, wasps, bumble bees, etc.
a.
Need to guard the honey otherwise it will be stolen
d.
Macroscopic and somewhat harmful pests
i.
Wax Moths
1.
Greater Wax Moth, Galleria Mellonella
2.
Lesser Wax Moth, Achroia grisella (less common)
ii.
Moth Larva tunnel through comb
1.
Will invade active hives with weakened defenses
2.
Workers in strong colonies remove wax moth larvae and repair
3.
damage
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4.
Main issue: beekeepers store large numbers of wax comb that can
be destroyed by moths
5.
Management: Air tight storage of frames, moth balls, light
iii. Tracheal Mites (Acarapis woodi)
1.
Small Mites that live in the tracheal tubes in thorax
2.
Feed on hemolymph
3.
Damage to tracheal tubes (puncture wounds, debris)
4.
Weakens hive and lowers ability to get through winter (wing
muscles are affected).
5.
Management
a.
Menthol pads
b.
70- 80 F required
iv. Small Hive Beetle (Aethina tumida)
1.
Larvae burrow into combs, eating brood, honey and pollen.
2.
Whilst feeding the larvae also carry a yeast species (Kodamaea
ohmeri) which contaminates the honey causing it to ferment.
3.
Heavy infestations cause the hive to become ‘slimed out’ and may
cause the colony to die or abscond.
4.
Management of this Issue - How to Control it:
a.
Good Colony management:
i.
Hives should be placed on areas of rubble/hard dry
soil to minimize SHB pupation sites
ii.
Bottom boards of hives should be kept free of
debris that can provide a hiding place or breeding
area for SHB.
b.
Treatments
i.
Trapping and baiting
c.
Example of prevention: Disposable small hive beetle trap
(can be filled with mineral oil)
e.
Macroscopic and serious hive pests
i.
Varroa Mites
1.
Varroa Destructor
2.
Number 1 pest
3.
The mite’s presence in a hive puts pressure on the health of the
colony
4.
The leading cause of colony overwintering mortality because
increase in population compared to bees population in winter
months
ii.
Microscopic pests
1.
List of the many A. mellifera Pathogens
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a.
Viruses (no treatment for any of the viruses)
i.
Black queen cell virus (BQCV)
ii.
acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV)
iii. Kashmir bee virus (KBV)
iv. Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV)
v.
deformed wing virus (DWV)
1.
Trophallaxis and feeding of brood allows
transmission of DWV between bees
2.
Varroa mites also transmits DWV to the
pupa while feeding
3.
DWV can:
a.
cause deformed wings
b.
reduce lifespan
c.
weaken the colony and
d.
make it more vulnerable to other
stressors
vi. Sacbrood virus (SBV)
vii. chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV)
viii.
Lake Sinai viruses (LSV1 and LSV2
b.
Fungi
i.
Nosema ceranae
ii.
Nosema apis
iii. Ascophaera apis
iv. Aspergillus sp.
c.
Protozoa
i.
Crithidia mellificae
d.
Bacteria
i.
Paenibacillus larvae
ii.
Melissococcus plutonius
2.
American FoulBrood
a.
Paenibacillus larvae: a microscopic rod-shaped bacterium
(AFB)
b.
Spores of the bacteria are passed from hive to hive
primarily via robbing and drifting bees.
c.
Young larvae ingest bacterial spores when fed by nurse
bees
d.
House Cleaning bees then try to remove the dead mass and
become contaminated with now dormant bacterial spores
e.
The bacteria consume the larva, which dissolves into a
gooey mass.
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f.
Spores last eighty years in woodenware and in the
environment.
g.
AFB is the most contagious bee disease, and is the reason
most states have apicultural inspectors.
h.
It is a notifiable disease
i.
Management for AFB:
i.
Antibiotic for mild cases (NOT allowed in Europe).
ii.
Otherwise: Burn entire hive and cover burn pit!
iii. In all cases: Sterilize all beekeeping equipment.
1.
Note that as of 2017 only veterinarians can
prescribe antibiotics for honey bees (as for
all livestock in the US)
3.
Nosema Disease
a.
Class Microsporidia (Fungi not Protozoa)
b.
Two species of concern - Nosema ceranae and N.apis
c.
Has been a very common disease condition, 50-90% of the
colonies in the US have bees infected with Nosema
d.
N.Cerane is more detrimental
i.
Ingested spores germinate in the midgut and invade
the epithelial cells
ii.
Once in the cell, the fungus grows by absorbing
nutrients from the cell
iii. Cells damaged, affects digestion, causes
malnutrition and premature death
iv. Life spans of worker bees may be reduced up to
78%
v.
Young workers infected by Nosema are not able to
produce royal jelly- can affect brood production and
colony build up
vi. Symptoms and Treatments:
1.
Heavy infection may lead to dysentery
2.
Control:
a.
Elimination of other stressors
b.
Use of antibiotic fumagillin
(Fumagillin-B) which is fed in the
fall as a preventative (not super
useful)
c.
Need new methods!
e.
Strong Hives = Healthy Hives
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i.
Most diseases can be avoided by keeping hives
strong
ii.
Frequent examinations catch issues early
iii. Prevention
1.
Reduce colony stress, good hive locations
with full sun
2.
Replace older combs which have a high
probability of having spores
3.
Be very careful of switching combs
between colonies
iv. Good colony nutrition may help reduce problems
1.
Pollen supplements in late winter and early
spring can help promote colony health
v.
Stresses (both disease and non-disease) often
compound upon each other, weakening colonies
f.
Microscopic pests in honey bees can be transmitted to wild bees
i.
Pathogens/Parasites of honey bees are shared with other bee species on
flowers (Note: whether those bee species are negatively affected the way
honey bees is unclear at the moment)
ii.
63% flowers visited by honey bees have “honey bee” pathogen on them
iii. 78% wild bees that visit those same flowers have “honey bee” pathogen
on them
What's Happening to Bees?
a.
Flowers as a food source:
i.
Nectar - Carbohydrates
ii.
Pollen – Protein, vitamins, fat
1.
As we can see, bees are necessities to our nutrition
b.
Pollination: transfer of male pollen to female ovary
c.
New York crops dependent on pollination
i.
Bees contribute ~$500M in pollination services annually
1.
$170 billion/year to world’s economy (Gallai et al. 2009)
2.
76% world’s crops rely on pollination
nter
d.
LiveStock
i.
Chickens
1.
Managed, but hardly domesticated
ii.
Cows
1.
Cattle breeding values
e.
New York State Beekeeping
i.
~3,000 NYS Beekeepers
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ii.
~100,000 colonies
iii.
~4.0 million lbs honey annually ($10 million)
iv. Decrease in pounds of honey production
v.
40-77% of New York honey bee colonies have died each year since 2006
f.
Why?
i.
Malnutrition
1.
Monocropping
2.
Habitat loss
ii.
Pesticides
1.
In the hive
2.
In the landscape
iii. Transportation
1.
Disease transmission
2.
Stress
iv. Pathogens
1.
Viruses
2.
Nosema
v.
Pests
1.
Varroa mite
vi. Genetic diversity
1.
Genetic bottleneck
g.
Almonds
i.
~2.7 million colonies are needed to pollinate almonds in CA
h.
Beekeeper Tech Team
i.
Sampled 3,342 colonies for diseases, pesticides, health
ii.
Beekeepers trained in BMPs via 1-on-1 meetings
iii. Colony health improves after 2-3 yrs in program
i.
Fun facts:
i.
Varroa mites are consistently among the top contributors of colony loss
ii.
Varroa remains consistently present in NYS colonies
iii. Varroa is the biggest predictor of colony loss Low Varroa mites loads =
higher chance of colony survival
j.
Pesticides
i.
Nectarines
1.
Sprayed with formetanate (Carzol®)
a.
Insecticide = toxic to bees
b.
Nectarines were blooming
c.
Sprayed during daytime
k.
Flower fidelity
i.
Foragers visit one plant species on a single flight.
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ii.
Each color pellet = different plant species
iii. Each plant species has a different nutritional composition
iv. Supplemental protein feeding = protein patties
1.
Increases brood production
2.
Increases protein and lipid (fat) content in bee bodies
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On adult bees, adults of Varroa destructor can be found between sclerotized plates of the bee's
abdomen. What are those adults doing there?
-
Feeding, by piercing the intersegmental membrane found between two consecutive
sclerotized plates
How did Dr Ramsey proved that Varroa mites fed from fat body and NOT from the bee's blood?
-
3: he showed that Varroa mites feeding on dyed bees ended up glowing red
1:he fed bees with dyes, a yellow one specific to water, and a red one specific to fat
Why are varroa mites a much more serious problem for western honey bees (Apis mellifera) than
they are for eastern honey bees (Apis cerana)?
-
Western honey bees have not had as long to evolve counter-adaptations to resist the
mites, while eastern honey bees have had millions of years to evolve countermeasures
We talked about both "vertical" and "horizontal" transmission of parasites during our discussion
of varroa mites. Which of the following mechanisms of transmission between colonies is
"vertical"? (The rest are horizontal transmission mechanisms.
-
Transmission of mites from a parent colony to the swarms that bud off from it
What is the problem with trying to treat varroa mites using a single miticidal synthetic pesticide?
-
The mites evolve resistance to the miticides we keep trying to use
"Integrated pest management" ("IPM") techniques use mechanical devices and strategies,
genetics/breeding of livestock/crop organisms, introduction of predators or parasites of pest
organisms (biological control), natural chemical compounds, and synthetic compounds
(pesticides) to fight parasites, pathogens, and predators. (This is used in honey bee colonies, and
also all across plant and animal agriculture!) How do IPM techniques allow beekeepers to
control varroa mites and other hive pests in a more sustainable way?
-
IPM techniques reduce the use of chemicals in the hive, and make it hard for pests like
varroa mites to evolve resistance to any one control mechanism
Individual bees that develop into adult with extremely large quantities of Deformed Wing Virus
(DWV) in their bodies emerge from their brood cells with deformed (shriveled) wings. What is
likely to happen when an entire colony has elevated levels of DWV in its bees?
-
The colony is likely to die over the winter
During varroa mite reproduction, how do the young mites ensure the survival of their species?
-
The male mite mates with his sisters near a pile of his mother's feces.
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What is the most serious harm that varroa mites cause to a bee colony?
-
Transmitting dangerous viruses between bees
What do mites do during the "phoretic" stage of their life?
-
The ride on the bodies of adult bees, feeding on them through their exoskeletons.
One of the reasons why treatment against Varroa destructor is tricky is due to their life cycle:
most of the mites in the hive are inside capped cells of the comb.
-
True. The Adult Varroa female hides inside a brood cell until the cell is capped then lays
eggs that will result in several larvae feeding on the pupae and the emerging adult.
Synthetic miticides are the only effective treatments against Varroa mites in the US.
-
False, essential oils (deterrents and/or toxic), mineral oil and powdered sugar can also be
used.
Varroa destructor is currently a devastating parasite of honey bees in the US. Was it always this
way
-
No. Prior to the 1980s, US honey bees had never encountered that parasite
Why does a visual inspection of adult mites in a colony fail to reveal the extent of mite
infestation?
-
all provided answers are correct
Varroa transmission between bees takes many routes. Can a worker pick up a mite while foraging
on flowers?
-
Yes, though it is believed to be uncommon
The methods available to evaluate the level of infestation of a colony by Varroa are:
-
diverse and good enough overall
Why is it challenging to measure the effect of neonicotinoid insecticides on bee's health "in the
field" as opposed to "in the laboratory"?
-
scientists need to have access to a significant amount of land
-
honey bees forage over a VERY large area around their hive, and that area might
include treated or non-treated fields and even untreated wild plants. This means that it is
hard to know about the TRUE intake of pesticides by foragers
-
scientists need to be able to include MANY hives which is a significant undertaking
-
none of the provided answers are correct
-
all provided answers are correct
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-
scientists need a lot of man power to set up field experiments involving hives and
monitoring them throughout the experimental period
Some field experiments focusing on the effect of neonicotinoids on honey bee colonies only
lasted 1 month. Why is this too short to establish the relevant effects of neonicotinoids on honey
bee colonies?
-
2: One month is too short given that honey bees forage for food for MANY months (ex: 7
consecutive months in very cold Ithaca)
3: a one-month experiment cannot account for the cumulative chronic exposure to
neonicotinoids over MANY months in a single colony of honey bees
Why are many foliar sprays of neonicotinoids not allowed in the US when flowers are blooming?
-
because this would result in a high concentration of neonicotinoids in hive products
(honey and bee bread) thus exposing honey bees to a high dose of those pesticides
What happens when you feed field-realistic low doses of neonicotinoids to honey bees?
-researchers observed sublethal effects such as increased worker mortality and reduced queen's
survival
Experiments performed in the last 10 years about the effect of neonicotinoids on honey bees IN
THE FIELD do not ALL find a detrimental effect on honey bees. How is that data used by
agrochemical companies right now?
-
Agrochemical companies use that data to claim that neonicotinoids are not THAT
detrimental to honey bees (and by extension to all other bees)
According to what was presented in Lecture 22, how many different pesticides are bees, whether
managed or wild, in a single crop field, typically exposed to?
-
Dozens
"Herbicides are meant to kill weeds thus they are safe for bees".
-
This is not always true and some herbicides were found to interfere with the honey bee's
gut microbiome
"Fungicides are meant to kill fungi thus they are safe for bees"
-
This is not always true because some fungicides may interfere with microorganisms that
are important for bee development
Why is it important to evaluate both lethal AND sublethal effects of a pesticide?
-
The LD50 reflects the lethality of a molecule while the NOAEL reflects the non-lethal
subtle effects that may have a large impact for highly intelligent and social bees
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How are neonicotinoids different from previous types of insecticides (carbamates, pyrethroids
and organophosphates)?
-
They target the Acetylcholine receptors, they are more toxic to bees but less toxic to
vertebrates, and they are more persistent in the environment
Why are the sublethal effects of some neonicotinoids (ex: imidacloprid) particularly detrimental
to honey bees and bumble bees?
-
Sublethal doses impair cognitive functions and reduce immune system responses ; both
are very detrimental in a highly intelligent social organism that must forage for food and
fend off attack by various pathogens
Studies primarily conducted in honey bees have shown that certain fungicides can elevate the
toxicity of neonicotinoids and organophosphates by as much as 1,000-fold. Why is this
significant?
-
Because farmers who apply those compounds to their crops are usually unaware of those
synergistic effects and thus of the devastating impact their pesticide application can have
-
Because this synergistic interaction is not taken into account when the FDA and EPA
approve a new pesticide
-
all possible answers are correct
What is NOT a way to reduce the impact of fungicides on bees during spraying?
-
Farmers can use seeds coated by pesticides instead of spraying
If you were a bee in an apple orchard, what would NOT be a way you could encounter
pesticides?
-
All are ways you might encounter pesticides
Which of the following are examples of sublethal effects?
Worker bees exposed while foraging lose weight
-
all are examples of sublethal effects
Exposed queens produce fewer offspring
Foragers can become confused or disoriented thus they have trouble finding their home nest
after exposure
Which of these is an example of a synergistic effect?
-
30% of bees exposed to fungicide A die; 10% exposed to insecticide B die; 60% die
when exposed to both
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POST LEC 23
"the Western honey bee is very good at beekeeping".
-
True since natural selection has sharpened their surviving skills over millions of years
The devastating mite Varroa destructor was accidentally introduced into the US in the mid 1980s.
Nowadays, beekeepers typically must intervene to help their hives fight infestation by this
parasite. What happened to the wild (=feral) bees?
-
All possible answers provided are correct
What is bee hunting?
-
a protocol created by professor Seeley that aims at finding nests of wild (=feral) western
honey bees
Darwinian beekeeping is not suitable for commercial beekeepers who have more than 300 hives.
-
True
The original environment in which wild colonies of the Western honey bee live differs
significantly from the current circumstances in which managed colonies live.
-
True
Which of the following is NOT a difference between the original environment of Western honey
bees and their current circumstances in managed colonies?
-
Managed colonies have a very thick propolis covering on the inside of the Langstroth
hive boxes
What is one reason why you may not want to use a queen reared in California for your Ithaca
(NY) hive?
-
That queen is probably not genetically locally adapted to the Ithaca environment thus the
ensuing workers will be poorly adapted to the brutal winter of Ithaca
What is one reason why you may want to keep your colony small?
This will keep Varroa destructor at bay because the mites will have less brood to parasitize
Evaluate the following statement: "colonies in upstate NY like Ithaca should be thoroughly
inspected in January every year"
-
False because this will likely greatly disturb the bees, by decreasing the internal
temperature of the cluster upon removal of the hive's lid and subsequent exposure to the
Ithaca's January frigid temperatures
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What are possible ecological impacts of having apiaries in US National Forests ?
-Competition for floral resources (nectar and pollen) between honey bees and native bees
Why are commercial beekeepers, and most of them are also migratory beekeepers, increasingly
interested in placing their hives in US public lands?
-All answers
- because they want to provide a low-pesticide environment to their bees after those have been
involved in pollination services throughout the country
- because development and intensive agriculture have devoured private land (ex: meadows) that
they used to rely on
According to the article assigned, why is it difficult for governmental officials to evaluate how
many hives could be placed in US National Forests without negatively affecting native bees?
-There is not yet enough data produced by scientists regarding how honey bees interact with
native bees in the US to guide their decision-making process
What type of managed pollinator is used for pollination services in the world?
-
All insects mentioned in the other answers include managed pollinators
"the Western honey bee Apis mellifera is the most effective pollinator species"
-
False since some wild bee species were found to be more effective than the Western
honey bee
According to the lecture of Dr Kaitlin Deutsch, what is NOT a negative effect that managed bees
can have on wild bees?
-
attack of the nests of wild bees
Depletion of floral resources by managed bees at the expense of wild bees has been found in 55
% of all studies dedicated to this question. According to the lecture of Dr Kaitlin Deutsch, why
did some studies clearly show a negative effect of managed bees while others did not?
-
Inconsistencies between studies conducted could come from variation in field-based
parameters such as flower density or the distance between managed bees and wild bees.
Where does spillover from managed bees to wild bees most often occur?
-
On flowers, through oral-fecal transmission
As the number of Varroa mites increases, the amount of DWV viral particles
....
-
Increases
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Which of the following is NOT a mitigation technique when trying to reduce the competition
between managed bees and wild bees?
-
treat flowers within 600 m of apiaries with insecticides
Although honey bee pathogens can be found on MANY wild bees, how much do we know about
the detrimental effects of those pathogens in these wild bees?
-
Not enough at the moment to be certain that the presence of these pathogens in wild bees
is particularly detrimental
The Xerces society is involved in the protection/conservation of insects and other invertebrates.
-
True
According to the video you watched, the Xerces society is mostly using tools and concepts
coming from:
-
Scientists
According to the video you watched, which of the following endeavors is not part of Xerces
activities?
-
financial investment in "green" companies
How many insects are useful to planet Earth?
-
About 98%
Why are pollinators ecological keystone species?
-
All answers
-
Because 85% of plant species depend on their pollination services
-
Because most plant-eating organisms need their pollination services
-
Because many species depend on the availability of plant-eating organisms
Why is the Xerces society particularly concerned about pesticides?
-
All answers
-
Because the total toxic load has increased exponentially since the introduction of
neonicotinoid insecticides
-
Because many pollinators are exposed to toxic compounds for MANY months in a row
and the effect of this long-term/chronic exposure is usually disregarded
-
Because the toxicity of pesticides is typically evaluated for a few species yet insect
species may not be affected by a given pesticide the same way
-
Because pesticides can have sublethal effects on pollinators (ex: affecting their behavior)
yet this is typically disregarded
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-
Because Pollinators are simultaneously exposed to several pesticides yet the effect of
those chemical mixes is usually disregarded
What are the benefits of creating flower strips on the edge of a wheat field?
-
Providing habitats for beneficial insects including pollinators
Why did the Xerces society disagree with the aerial spraying of insecticides to control invasive
grasshoppers in the US South West?
-
Because there is clear evidence that those sprays have an adverse effect on several
species, including Monarch butterflies and pollinators
What do Xerces partners biologists like Dr Kass Urban-Mead do?
-
all provided answers are correct
they create habitat kits that facilitate the creation of pollinators gardens in urban areas
they improve technical documents and fact sheets used in outreach efforts
they meet with farmers and landowners to support their efforts to conserve pollinators
The Xerces society provides habitat kits to interested communities, as well as seed mixes and
even fully grown plants ready to be inserted in soil. Why is this helping pollinators?
-
An important obstacle for the creation of pollinator gardens revolves around plants (what
type? How to get seeds/plants of the desired species? How to grow them? etc.)
Pollinator garden are:
-
all provided answers are correct
-
a source of joy for the humans involved
-
usually beneficial to pollinators if well planned
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