ITTS 266 Adonon-PROJECT PAPER

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CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 1 Project Paper American Military University Professor: Dr Yongge Wang ISSC 266 Cryptography concepts

CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 2 Abstract Over several years, cryptography has proven to be an indispensable tool for ensuring the safety of sensitive data. Describing cryptography is important so readers and users can completely understand its objective and operation. This method's significance in modern life will be shown by detailing its background and present applications. In order to prove that the technologies used really do safeguard the data they are applied to, it will be necessary to observe the algorithms in motion. Finally, showing that there are still risks, both known and unknown, despite the progress gained in cryptography emphasizes the significance of using cryptographic techniques. This paper will discuss the current definition of cryptography, the language and terminology used in the field, the application of cryptographic measures, the variety of algorithms used to perform cryptographic tasks, and the potential dangers in this area of study. This paper will assemble evidence from various sources to demonstrate how and why cryptography is an important aspect of overall data protection.

CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 3 The practice of cryptography, or the creation and decipherment of secret codes, is a crucial part of modern data protection. The use of this technology protects information while it is in transit, at rest, and while being accessed by authorized parties. The use of cryptography dates back millennia and has been used for a wide variety of services, including the dissemination of military and political strategies and the protection of sensitive information. Unfortunately, most people today are unaware of the myriad ways in which cryptography is used to safeguard information, such as messages, passwords, and financial details. The reader will better understand the significance of cryptography if they are familiar with its concept, typical applications, security-providing algorithms, and potential risks. The inclusion of cryptography in your information security strategy is crucial for protecting the privacy, authenticity, and accessibility of your data. The term "cryptography," which originated from the Greek word Kryptos refers to the study of methods for keeping communications private (National Research Council et al., 1996). An Egyptian scribe's usage of non-standard hieroglyphs in an inscription is the first instance of their appearance in written history. Experts agree that the early uses of cryptography were for military and diplomatic communications; therefore, it is not surprising that the technique emerged not long after the invention of writing (Kessler, 2020). It is not strange that encryption is used to protect sensitive data in the modern world. However, since cryptography alone cannot guarantee the safety of sensitive data, it is often used in tandem with additional security measures to provide the appropriate level of protection (National Research Council et al., 1996). Encryption, decryption, keys, plaintext, ciphertext, and algorithms are all terminology that comes up in discussions about cryptography. As the name suggests, plaintext is the unencrypted version

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CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 4 of a message transcribed by algorithms. Ciphertext is the information that has been encrypted but is still readable without the key. In order to decrypt the ciphertext, a key must be employed. This key might be a phrase, a password, or a series of digits. Deciphering is the process of converting ciphertext into plaintext, which may then be read by the intended recipients (Kessler, 2020). Nowadays, with all the advanced technology available, cryptography is used in just about every facet of human communication and daily life. Network security, computer system security, and information security are only a few of the newer areas of use for what was originally developed for military and political purposes (National Research Council et al., 1996). Since the encryption and decryption process no longer needs the user to possess a secret key, it has found widespread application in almost all areas where technology is used today. Typical cryptography applications include financial transactions, electronic communication, data storage, and many more (Kessler, 2020). While the average user would never understand how cryptography works, it is essential for anybody working in the field of information security to have some familiarity with the subject. When it comes to providing security, cryptography's strong suit is the size and structure of its keys and corresponding algorithms. If the key is long enough, it will be more difficult for an attacker to use it in a brute-force assault, in which they try every conceivable key until the encryption is cracked and the data can be seen in plaintext. Cryptography relies on a bigger key size and mathematical procedures to overcome these frequent assaults. It would take around 11.5 days to crack a key that's 40 bits long, but it would take about 2,000 years if the key were 56 bits long (National Research Council et al., 1996). There is a clear correlation between key length and security against brute-force assaults. In general, cryptography serves five purposes. First, there is confidentiality, which ensures that no one except those authorized to see the information may access it in any way. The second part,

CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 5 authentication, verifies the identity of the data viewer to ensure that they are really who they say they are. Third, we must guarantee the file's integrity by ensuring it has not been tampered with en route. The next step is nonrepudiation, which verifies that the sent file was indeed the one received. Last, we will go over key exchange, which is the transfer of cryptographic keys from sender to receiver (Kessler, 2020). In the following sections, we will break them down into numerous constituent parts. One of cryptography's most obvious and widespread applications is facilitating private and confidential communication. Most of the time, this is used without either the sender or the recipient realizing what is happening. The most obvious use of private communication would be between an email client and its email server or between a web server and a web browser. The use of cryptography guarantees that the contents of these communications and records cannot be read by anybody who is not authorized to do so. Most major corporations use the safe, encrypted HTTPS prefix for their websites (Chamberlain, 2017). Cryptography is also often used in the context of data storage. This is because everyone nowadays collects massive quantities of data, and this information is useful to someone, even if it's just the originator. Operating systems encrypt data at rest while stored on a computer to protect user credentials and guarantee the integrity of software updates and patches (Chamberlain, 2017). BitLocker and EFS are two of the built-in encryption methods in Windows that keep sensitive information safe from prying eyes (Windows 10 Encryption Strategies, 2017). Like data storage, password storage uses cryptography to ensure the security of the stored information. In the event that passwords are saved in plaintext, an attacker might potentially get access to any data or software those credentials are used to access. Therefore, passwords should

CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 6 not be stored in plaintext on a computer since doing so makes it easier for a malicious actor to access the information. However, they may be made more secure by using encryption. Hashing is the most effective approach for this kind of storage since it enables the computer system to verify the password's authenticity without disclosing the plaintext password (Chamberlain, 2017). Time stamping also employs the usage of cryptography. This process verifies that certain information really existed or was sent at a given time and date. Without revealing the message to the receiver beforehand, a blind signature mechanism is employed to generate the time stamp and provide a receipt of the delivery time. One may compare this to the practice of mailing a registered letter, in which the recipient's signature attests to the letter's timely delivery. This is standard procedure when dealing with copyright documentation, legal agreements, and patent filings (Prashanth, 2019). In many cases, people no longer exchange cash for purchases; instead, they use electronic money. When we talk about electronic money, we often mean things like direct deposits, cryptocurrencies, and digital gold currency, all of which are traded through EFT. Electronic funds transfer (EFT) is the use of computers to move money between financial accounts. For example, billions of dollars are exchanged daily using these methods, which include online payment, debit and credit cards, ATMs, online transferal, and other virtual ways, such as PayPal. For all of these deals, we turn to cryptography and a variation on the cryptographic signature developed by Dr. Davis Chaum: the blind signature. This particular signature method is ideal for those who like to keep their digital currency transactions private and untraceable (Uses Of Cryptography | Chapter No. 4 | Fasttrack To Cryptography, n.d.).

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CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 7 The usage of digital signatures is the last technology addressed. When deployed, they use encryption to confirm information to the audience. It has several uses, including authenticating documents, recording timestamps, and proving ownership. When a document is digitally signed, the signer's private key is stored alongside information inherent to it. This is often done with the use of a hashing operation and a private signing function (Prashanth, 2019). Four distinct types of cryptographic algorithms are in widespread use today. Hundreds of cryptographic algorithms have become popular over the course of many centuries. Every new technological development call for an equally innovative algorithm to provide the desired level of protection. Although it was formerly widely employed, the Caesar Cipher is currently considered obsolete because of its simplicity and ease of decryption (Practical Cryptography, n.d.). Like the Caesar Cipher, the Vigenère Cipher was a widely used encryption method that eventually became obsolete. The message is encrypted using a variant of Caesar ciphers combined with a word. For a long time, this approach was thought to be impenetrable; nevertheless, it was eventually discovered that a frequency analysis could be used to determine the key, allowing the message to be read. Unfortunately, the Kasiski technique rendered this kind of encryption obsolete, much as the Caesar cipher before it (Cryptography -- Vigenère Cipher, n.d.). Symmetric encryption, often known as secret key cryptography, is a popular method used today. In order to encrypt and decrypt data, this technique uses the same key. It has been employed for hundreds of years in various contexts to protect personal information (Kessler, 2020). However, the most significant difficulty of its implementation is key distribution

CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 8 since the key must be given to the intended recipient and protected from unauthorized parties at that moment (National Research Council et al., 1996). The two types of ciphers that use symmetric keys are block ciphers and stream ciphers. Data is encrypted in increments of a predetermined block size when using a block cipher. After being encrypted, each given plaintext fragment will always result in identical ciphertext (Kessler, 2020). Data is encrypted one bit at a time when using a stream cipher. In addition, they use a feedback method in which the encryption key is dynamically updated. Two primary symmetric key algorithms are widely used today, with a few more following close after. The International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA), Data Encryption Standard (DES), Rivest Ciphers, and others. Due to technological improvements, several algorithms have been compromised and no longer provide the necessary degree of security. Many programs now do not support DES, and this number is expected to grow (Kessler, 2020). Asymmetric encryption, sometimes known as public-key cryptography, is another popular option. With this system, you will need two keys: one for encryption and another for decryption. In addition to authentication and key exchange, this technique also provides non-repudiation (Kessler, 2020). Every user has two keys at their disposal: a public key that can be accessed by everyone and a private key that that person can only use. With a properly implemented public key structure, the time required to derive a private key from a public key is sufficiently great that the associated risk may be mitigated (National Research Council et al., 1996).

CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 9 RSA is the most popular asymmetric algorithm utilized today. In addition to RSA, additional cryptographic protocols exist, such as the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA), elliptic curve cryptography (ECC), Diffie-Hellman, and others. Many previous versions of RSA have been hacked and are now considered hazardous to use, much like many symmetric algorithms. There have been several upgrades and security enhancements to certificates released by RSA, and RSA-2048 is now widely used as the encryption standard by many Certificate Authorities (Kessler, 2020). Digitally signed data may be authenticated thanks to signature algorithms. The algorithms utilized prove that the claimant is who they claim to be. Non-repudiation, immutability, and verification are all benefits of digital signatures. The relevance of signature algorithms has grown in recent years as e-commerce has become increasingly prevalent (Shinder & Cross, 2008). Finally, we will go through the different hash functions and how they may be used to encrypt data using mathematical processes. In order to ensure the security of communication, hashing methods are often used (Kessler, 2020). Since the likelihood of a hash generated from two separate messages being the same is very low, this method may be used to check whether a message has been tampered with while in transit. (National Research Council et al., 1996). Unfortunately, hashing techniques are severely lacking in various categories compared to symmetric and asymmetric algorithms. For example, message Digest 5 (MD5) is well-known but is no longer used since its original purposes were compromised. In terms of SHA hashing algorithms, the most recent iteration is SHA-3. Both SHA-1 and SHA-2 are still in use; however, SHA-1 has lost official NIST backing. Although additional hashing algorithms do exist, MD and SHA have by far the most widespread use now (Kessler, 2020).

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CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 10 There is, in fact, a trend toward the development of more secure cryptographic methods in the future, and we must address it. In order to provide the same degree of security when quantum computers become commonplace, quantum cryptography will need to be developed in the near future. Using quantum physics for encryption will keep the information secure and hidden from prying eyes. This method is also believed to be hack proof. In quantum cryptography, the encryption keys are sent through a single-photon-per-fiber-line transmission, taking advantage of the unusual behavior of particles. Due to the fact that the photons and polarization will be changed to reveal that the message was intercepted, Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is very resistant to eavesdropping (Korolov & Drinkwater, 2019). Even though cryptography has been around for hundreds of years and has seen much development, risks always need to be considered. Unfortunately, keys, which are cryptography's greatest strength, are also its most significant vulnerability. Insider attacks, insufficient encryption, reverse engineering, and many more round out the list of potential dangers. Users may get closer to the level of protection they seek with the help of cryptography if the risks associated with it are well recognized. As the initial point of failure in cryptography, keys may be easily discovered or inferred by attackers, making weak keys the biggest security risk. Much like passwords, the more complicated the key is, the less likely someone would guess it by chance. The integrity of keys might be affected if they are utilized improperly. Reusing a key, failing to rotate keys, using mediocre protection, and having inadequate storage and transmission are all things that might render cryptography almost ineffective for information security (Stubbs, 2018).

CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 11 The dangers that insiders pose play a significant role in the cryptographic landscape. This may be a disgruntled worker exacting vengeance or the sale of confidential company information. Unfortunately, unintentional insider threats are quite prevalent and always a bummer. One such cause is a careless or apathetic worker who gives away a key that might be used by an adversary in a variety of attacks (Stubbs, 2018). The process of studying the inner workings of a program via dissection is known as reverse engineering. Attackers may utilize this to determine the encryption technique and use that information in subsequent attacks (National Research Council et al., 1996). In addition, cryptanalysis, or the retrieval of plaintext material without using the key, may occur due to a small key size and inadequate encryption algorithms. As a result, the size of the key and the algorithm's complexity directly impact the efficacy of this process (National Research Council et al., 1996). The reality is that no matter how diligently everyone works, there will always be defects in the outcome. Problems, such as poor algorithms, might become more common or severe due to rushed development and delivery. In order to prevent security holes in the network, comprehensive testing must precede deployment. Criminals constantly find new ways to compromise networks and systems by exploiting programming flaws (National Research Council et al., 1996). In addition to the direct dangers, encryption also faces indirect dangers from the law. Because of its history in intelligence work, law enforcement has a more difficult time stopping criminal organizations and terrorists from using it. Legal concerns in cryptography may be broken down into three broad groups: patent-related concerns, import control concerns, and export control

CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 12 concerns. These may seem like over-generalizations, yet they cover almost every concern raised by the need to regulate cryptography (Kumar, 2004). The United States government classifies some types of cryptographic software and hardware as weapons, subjecting them to export controls. Since these cryptographic libraries and any software that uses them fall under such strict regulation, any third party wishing to use them must first apply for a license to do so. A number of restrictions on exporting commercial cryptographic software have been lifted in recent years (Kumar, 2004). On the other side, some institutions place limitations on cryptography by prohibiting certain algorithms and key sizes. In addition, the United States government mandates that anybody who wants unrestricted access to this area set up individual policy files for each agency (Kumar, 2004). Lastly, there are patent-related concerns. For example, if patents are broken, there may be legal repercussions. Therefore, it is recommended that end users use algorithms for which the patent has either expired or never been issued. A good illustration is the expiration of RSA's patent in 2000 (Kumar, 2004). The importance of cryptography in the larger picture of information security becomes clear when privacy and data integrity must be protected. Most people routinely use cryptography, the practice of sending and decoding secret messages without giving it much thought. This technology is utilized in a wide variety of contexts, including the United States Postal Service, messaging, data storage, financial transactions, and many more. A wide variety of cryptographic algorithms are available today, and this trend is expected to continue. In addition, evidence from recent years suggests that cryptography will continue to exist and evolve in tandem with new technology. The strength of cryptographic security and how it is integrated into the larger architecture of data protection will be determined by the nature and severity of the threats. In

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CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 13 order to prevent more sophisticated attacks from malicious actors, cryptography must evolve to meet new challenges. References Chamberlain, A. (2017). Applications of Cryptography | UCL Risky Business. https://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/infosec/2017/03/12/applications-of-cryptography/ Cryptography—Vigenère Cipher. (n.d.). Retrieved April 25, 2023, from https://www.it.uu.se/edu/course/homepage/security/vt08/labs/vigenere.html Kessler, G. C. (2020). An Overview of Cryptography. https://www.garykessler.net/library/crypto.html Korolov, M., & Drinkwater, D. (2019). What is quantum cryptography? It’s no silver bullet, but could improve security. CSO Online. https://www.csoonline.com/article/3235970/what- is-quantum-cryptography-it-s-no-silver-bulletbut-could-improve-security.html Kumar, P. (2004). Cryptography with Java https://www.informit.com/articles/

CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 14 National Research Council, Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences, Computer Science and Telecommunications Board, Committee to Study National Cryptography Policy, Dam, K. W., & Lin, H. S. (1996). Cryptography’s Role in Securing the Information Society. https://doi.org/10.17226/5131 Practical Cryptography. (n.d.). Retrieved April 25, 2023, from http://practicalcryptography.com/ciphers/caesar-cipher/ Prashanth, R. (2019 ). Real Life Applications of CRYPTOGRAPHY . Medium. https://medium.com/@prashanthreddyt1234/real-life-applications-of-cryptography- 162ddf2e917d Shinder, L., & Cross, M. (2008). Scene of Cybercrime (Second Edition). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781597492768000121 Stubbs, R. (2018). Cryptographic Key Management—The Risks and Mitigation . https://www.cryptomathic.com/news-events/blog/cryptographic-key-management-the- risks-andmitigation Uses Of Cryptography | Chapter No. 4 | Fasttrack To Cryptography . (n.d.). Digit. Retrieved April 27, 2023, from https://www.digit.in/technology-guides/fasttrack-to-cryptography/uses- ofcryptography.Html Windows 10 Encryption Strategies: The Definitive Guide [2020]. (2017). https://cyberx.tech/windows-10-encryption/

CRYPTOGRAPGY CONCEPT 15

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ITTS 266 Adonon-PROJECT PAPER

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