Bio Psych Summary for Multiple Choice

 Special components of Neurons  Types of Neurons  Glia Summary:  Neurons are specialized animal cells with components such as the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, microtubules, Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, vacuoles, vesicles, and lysosomes.  The cell membrane of neurons is a double lipid membrane that separates compartments and acts as a reaction surface.  The nucleus holds DNA, which is transcribed into RNA in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and ribosomes synthesize enzymes as instructed by RNA.  Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, converting glucose into ATP through processes like the citric acid cycle.  Neurons have specialized anatomy, including the soma, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, and synaptic boutons.  Neurons can be categorized based on their shape, such as anaxonic, bipolar, unipolar, or multipolar.  Sensory neurons transmit information from the periphery to the nervous system, while motor neurons innervate muscles, and relay neurons connect sensory and motor neurons.  Interneurons are smaller neurons that do not need to span long distances and can have extensive dendritic or axonal branches.  Glia cells surround and support neurons, aiding in repair, nutrient supply, and extracellular voltage control. They do not fire action potentials.  Astrocytes are a type of glia cell that encapsulate synapses, mediate communication, maintain ion balances, and form a network.  Microglia are immune cells that remove debris and pathogens, while Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath.  Radial glia guide the growth of axons over long distances. Multiple-Choice Questions: 1. Neurons are animal cells that have a specialized component responsible for turning glucose into ATP. What is this component? a) Nucleus b) Ribosomes c) Endoplasmic reticulum d) Mitochondria Answer: d) Mitochondria 2. Which type of neuron transmits information from the periphery to the nervous system? a) Sensory neuron b) Motor neuron c) Interneuron d) Relay neuron Answer: a) Sensory neuron 3. What is the function of astrocytes, a type of glia cell? a) Immune response b) Myelin formation c) Maintaining ion balances and forming a network d) Encapsulating synapses and mediating communication Answer: c) Maintaining ion balances and forming a network 4. Which glia cells remove debris, viruses, and bacteria in the nervous system? a) Astrocytes b) Microglia c) Schwann cells d) Oligodendrocytes Answer: b) Microglia 5. What is the role of interneurons? a) Transmit information from sensory neurons to motor neurons b) Surround and hold neurons in place c) Repair and provide nutrient supply to neurons d) Aid in information processing over short distances

Channels/Receptors  Permanently open K+ channel for resting potential.  Voltage-gated Na+ channel for depolarization of the action potential.  Voltage-gated K+ channel for repolarization of the action potential.  Na/K ATPase pump to maintain ion concentration gradients.  Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels leading to the release of synaptic vesicles.  Gap junctions providing electrical shortcuts between cells.  Various neurotransmitter receptors, such as glutamate receptors (NMDA, AMPA, Kainate) and GABAA/GABAB receptors. Neurotransmitters and Receptors  Neurotransmitters are synthesized or concentrated in the presynaptic cell, released upon activation, and produce post-synaptic effects.  Neuromodulators modulate the cell's responsivity and sensitivity to inputs.  Drugs can affect post-synaptic mechanisms and have various effects on receptors. Drug effects at the synapse  Many drugs affect the post-synaptic mechanisms of natural chemicals.  Drugs of abuse often stimulate the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens.  Drugs can increase neurotransmitter release, block degeneration of neurotransmitters, or block neurotransmitters at the synapse.  Increase neurotransmitter release in the synapse - Amphetamine  Block degeneration of neurotransmitters in synapse- Antidepressants  Block neurotransmitters at the synapse- Cocaine, Ritalin, MDMA  Activates Receptors that normally respond to neurotransmitters- Weed Multiple-Choice Questions: 1. What is the purpose of myelinization in saltatory transduction? A. It decreases nerve pulse transduction speed. B. It increases nerve pulse transduction speed. C. It prevents action potential propagation. D. It enhances neurotransmitter release. Answer: B. It increases nerve pulse transduction speed. 2. Which type of receptor immediately opens ion channels upon receptor binding? A. Ionotropic receptor B. Metabotropic receptor C. Ligand-gated receptor D. Voltage-gated receptor Answer: A. Ionotropic receptor 3. What is the main effect of GABA binding to GABAA receptors? A. Hyperpolarization B. Depolarization C. Inhibition of neurotransmitter release D. Excitation of postsynaptic neuron Answer: A. Hyperpolarization 4. What is the primary region for reward processing affected by drugs of abuse? A. Amygdala B. Hippocampus C. Nucleus accumbens D. Prefrontal cortex Answer: C. Nucleus accumbens 5. Which drug stimulates the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens? A. Antidepressants B. Cocaine C. Amphetamine D. Ritalin Answer: C. Amphetamine

 Animal evidence shows that dendritic structure can refine and change over time.  Environmental influence, such as a stimulating environment, can enhance the sprouting of axons and dendrites.  Neuroplasticity is not limited to early development, as the mammalian brain retains the ability to undergo substantial reorganization throughout life.  Human neuroplasticity includes developmental plasticity during brain development and adaptive plasticity to compensate for lost function or maximize remaining functions after brain injury.  Processes behind plasticity involve synaptic rearrangement to focus neuron output on fewer postsynaptic neurons and neural reorganization through strengthening existing connections or establishing new ones.  The book "The Brain that Changes Itself" highlights the evidence of sensory substitution and increasing residual benefit as indicators of neural plasticity. Development of Neurons Governing principles of neural development – these are very similar to the principals governing our psychosocial development 1. Identity: o some become muscle cells, multipolar neurons, glial cells, etc. 2. Travel: o make way to appropriate sites and join to form structures 3. Relations/Connectivity: o establish appropriate functional relations Processes Behind Plasticity Two main processes: 1. synaptic rearrangement 2. neural reorganisation 1. Synaptic Rearrangement  occurs across the lifespan  aims to focus output of each neuron on fewer postsynaptic neurons o goal is efficiency  also involves process of cell death 2. Neural Reorganisation Two types of reorganisation of neural connections: 1. rapid change: o usually results from experience o strengthening of existing connections o underpins developmental plasticity 2. gradual change: o usually results from neural damage o establishment of new connections o underpins adaptive plasticity o e.g. collateral sprouting Multiple-Choice Questions: 1. What is the primary driver of how growth cones find their target connections? a. Genetic programming b. Neural migration c. Chemoaffinity d. Axon growth Answer: c. Chemoaffinity 2. Which of the following is NOT a principle of neural development? a. Identity b. Travel c. Relations/Connectivity d. Synaptogenesis Answer: d. Synaptogenesis 3. Which process involves the formation of synapses between neurons?

 Cutaneous receptors, such as free nerve endings, Pacinian corpuscles, and Merkel disks, play a role in tactile sensations.  Somatosensory information ascends to the cortex through the dorsal medial-lemniscus system (touch and proprioception) and the anterolateral system (pain and temperature).  The primary somatosensory area (S1) is somatotopically organized in the postcentral gyrus.  The posterior parietal cortex is an association cortex that integrates visual, auditory, and somatosensory information.  Selective attention allows us to focus on specific sensory input while ignoring the rest, improving perception within the focus but interfering with perception outside of it. Multiple choice questions: 1. What is the primary function of the auditory system? a) Detecting sound waves b) Perceiving objects and events through sounds c) Localizing sound sources d) Converting vibrations into neural signals Answer: b) Perceiving objects and events through sounds 2. Which part of the ear helps us locate the source of a sound? a) Pinna b) Tympanic membrane c) Oval window d) Cochlea Answer: a) Pinna 3. How are sound waves converted into neural signals in the cochlea? a) Vibrations in the fluid displace hair cells b) Ossicles amplify the sound waves c) Tympanic membrane vibrates at the same rate d) Sound waves directly stimulate the auditory nerve Answer: a) Vibrations in the fluid displace hair cells 4. Which pathway primarily functions to mediate the perception of pain and temperature in the somatosensory system? a) Dorsal Medial-Lemniscus System b) Anterolateral system c) Primary somatosensory area d) Posterior parietal cortex Answer: b) Anterolateral system 5. What is the function of the posterior parietal cortex? a) Integration of visual, auditory, and somatosensory information b) Primary processing of auditory signals c) Mapping of different frequencies in the auditory system d) Perception of touch and proprioception Answer: a) Integration of visual, auditory, and somatosensory information 6. What is the role of selective attention? a) Enhancing perception of information within the focus b) Ignoring all sensory input c) Improving perception of information outside the focus d) Decreasing overall sensory perception Answer: a) Enhancing perception of information within the focus Week 5 (L2): The Sensorimotor System Covering the learning objectives and the notes below, create a dot point summary with questions and answers to possible multiple-choice questions: Objectives  Review the principals of sensorimotor function o brain areas involved

b. Respiratory, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and cognitive symptoms c. Motor, sensory, visual, and auditory symptoms d. Emotional, psychological, social, and cognitive symptoms Answer: a. Neurological, somatic, affective, and cognitive symptoms 2. Which of the following is a mechanism of damage in cerebrovascular disorders? a. Excess glutamate release b. Dysregulation of cell division c. Interruption of synaptic communication d. Reduced blood flow to neural tissue Answer: d. Reduced blood flow to neural tissue 3. Which imaging technique is used to diagnose tumors in the brain? a. EEG b. MRI/CT c. Cerebral angiography d. Nerve conduction Answer: b. MRI/CT 4. Closed head injuries result from: a. Penetration of the skull b. A blow to the head without penetration of the skull c. Neurotoxin exposure d. Infection of the brain tissue Answer: b. A blow to the head without penetration of the skull 5. How do neurotoxins damage the nervous system? a. They interrupt synaptic communication b. They cause rapid cell division and tumor growth c. They induce nervous system arrest or nerve tissue death d. They lead to inflammation of the brain Answer: a. They interrupt synaptic communication 6. Which brain structures are critical for memory? a. Amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and cerebellum b. Hippocampus, amygdala, and parietal lobe c. Frontal lobe, temporal lobe, and cerebellum d. Hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and cerebellum Answer: b. Hippocampus, amygdala, and parietal lobe Week 7 (L2): Human Brain Damage (2) Covering all of the learning objectives and the notes below, create a dot point summary with questions and answers to possible multiple-choice questions: Outline  Neuropsychological Disorders 2  Parkinson’s Disease  Huntington’s Disease  Multiple Sclerosis  Epilepsy Summary: Parkinson’s Disease:  Progressive neurological condition with inadequate dopamine production.  Motor disorder resulting in difficulty controlling movements.  Prevalence: 80,000 affected in Australia, 7 million affected globally.  Symptoms typically begin in the 50s or 60s and worsen over time.  Characterized by neurological, motor, psychological, and behavioural symptoms.  Mechanism of damage involves degeneration of dopamine pathways.  Diagnosis through neurological examination.

 Paraventricular Hypothalamus: controls food intake and energy expenditure.  Lateral Hypothalamus: involved in reward-related food intake.  Ventromedial Nucleus: promotes sensations of fullness. Endocrine regulation of food intake:  Glucose, insulin, and glucagon: regulate glucose levels and hunger.  Ghrelin: stimulates appetite.  Leptin: suppresses appetite and promotes satiety.  Cortisol: regulates energy mobilization and can stimulate food intake.  Dopamine: involved in reward pathways and desire for food. Purpose of food intake:  Set-Point Theory of Hunger and Body Weight: regulates body weight within a set range.  Positive Incentive Theory: food intake driven by anticipatory or reward value.  Stress Regulation: food intake for emotional relief and stress management. Food intake dysregulation:  Disordered Eating Behaviours: emotional eating, restrained eating, external eating.  Involvement of hormones like leptin and ghrelin in disordered eating behaviours. Multiple-Choice Questions: 1. Biological rhythms are: a) Patterns of behaviour in animals b) Natural bodily functions regulated by the body clock c) Random fluctuations in body temperature d) Hormone secretion only Answer: b) Natural bodily functions regulated by the body clock 2. Circadian rhythms repeat every: a) 12 hours b) 24 hours c) 7 days d) 30 days Answer: b) 24 hours 3. The stages of sleep include: a) NREM and REM b) Light sleep and deep sleep c) Dreaming and wakefulness d) Non-responsive and active Answer: a) NREM and REM 4. The brain region responsible for wakefulness and arousal is: a) Hypothalamus b) Reticular formation c) Pineal gland d) Thalamus Answer: b) Reticular formation 5. The hormone involved in the regulation of sleep-wake cycles is: a) Melatonin b) Insulin c) Dopamine d) Ghrelin Answer: a) Melatonin 6. Hunger and satiety signals are regulated by the: a) Arcuate nucleus b) Paraventricular hypothalamus c) Lateral hypothalamus d) Ventromedial nucleus Answer: a) Arcuate nucleus

Localised Representations of Memory:  Classical conditioning involves pairing stimuli to change a response.  Instrumental conditioning (operant conditioning) involves responses followed by reinforcers or punishments. Lashley's Search for the Engram:  Engram refers to a physical representation of what has been learned.  Lashley's principles: Equipotentiality (all cortex parts contribute equally) and Mass action (more cortex is better).  Lashley's faulty assumptions: Focusing on the cerebral cortex and assuming all learning examples are the same. The Modern Search for the Engram:  Suggested classical conditioning engram location in the cerebellum.  Changes in brain areas don't always indicate where learning occurred. Types of Memory:  Short-term memory: Limited capacity, fades without rehearsal, no cue/hint stimulation.  Long-term memory: Unlimited capacity, persists without rehearsal, cue/hint stimulation possible. Two major subdivisions of long-term memory:  Explicit memory (declarative): Deliberate recall of recognized information.  Implicit memory (non-declarative): Influence of experience on behaviour without recognition. Working Memory:  Proposed by Baddeley & Hitch as an alternative to short-term memory.  Temporary storage for task-related memories.  Prefrontal cortex associated with working memory storage. Amnesia:  Memory loss resulting from brain damage.  Types: Anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) and retrograde amnesia (loss of past memories).  Korsakoff's Syndrome: Caused by thiamine deficiency, often due to chronic alcoholism. Brain Structures Related to Memory:  Hippocampus involved in memory formation and recall.  Prefrontal cortex related to working memory and decision-making.  Basal ganglia linked to motor and implicit memory.  Cerebellum associated with classical conditioning and skilled motor movements.  Other structures include amygdala (fear learning), parietal lobe (associating information), and anterior temporal complex (semantic memories). Memory Disruption in Clinical Disorders:  Episodic memory (personal events), semantic memory (factual information), procedural memory (motor skills) can be disrupted. Multiple-choice questions: 1. Which principle did Lashley propose regarding the contribution of different brain areas to complex behaviors? a) Equipotentiality b) Mass action c) Both a) and b) d) None of the above Answer: c) Both a) and b) 2. What is the primary characteristic of short-term memory? a) Unlimited capacity b) Fades quickly without rehearsal c) Can be stimulated with a cue/hint d) Memory of events from times further back Answer: b) Fades quickly without rehearsal 3. Which brain structure is associated with working memory storage? a) Hippocampus b) Prefrontal cortex c) Basal ganglia d) Cerebellum

Answer: b) Prefrontal cortex 4. What type of memory loss is characterized by the inability to form new memories after brain damage? a) Anterograde amnesia b) Retrograde amnesia c) Korsakoff's syndrome d) Alzheimer's disease Answer: a) Anterograde amnesia 5. Which brain structure is primarily involved in classical conditioning? a) Hippocampus b) Prefrontal cortex c) Basal ganglia d) Cerebellum Answer: d) Cerebellum Week 10(L1): Classical conditioning Covering all of the learning objectives and the notes below, create a dot point summary with questions and answers to possible multiple-choice questions: Outline:  Simple form of learning that results from experience o S-S Associations o Predicting and preparing for important biological events  Kahneman’s ‘fast’ mode o Unconscious and involuntary o Feelings, inclinations, intuitions o Context dependent Classical conditioning  The elements (US, UR, CS, CR, NS) o Revisit the simple Pavlov’s dogs story  What factors affect learning? o Is it just frequency of pairings?  Blocking and the Rescorla-Wagner model o Over expectancy  What associations are learned? o S-R or S-S? Summary: Reflexes:  Smallest unit of unconditioned behaviour (UR).  Reflexes are not learned.  Observable behaviour associated with a reflex can vary due to habituation or sensitization.  Twitmeyer's apparatus for studying conditioning in humans involved the patellar tendon reflex.  Other reflexes studied in humans include salivation, sucking in infants, blinking, gagging, shivering. Classical Conditioning:  Unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR) are unlearned.  Conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR) are learned.  Classical conditioning is a way to study how associations are learned.  Classical conditioning is widespread in animals and involves the learning of new associations.  The predictive value of the CS is critical in classical conditioning. Associations:  Classical conditioning allows animals to anticipate and prepare for significant events automatically.  Classical conditioning has adaptive value in predicting important biological events. US, CS, and CR:

 The US elicits a response without training.  The CS is neutral before conditioning and becomes associated with the US through pairing.  The CR is a whole system response and can differ from the UR in timing and nature.  The CR can be seen as an adaptive preparation for the US. Factors Affecting Acquisition:  Pairing (contiguity) and frequency of CS-US pairings influence acquisition.  One-trial learning is possible in taste aversion conditioning.  Pairing alone is not sufficient; factors like intensity, novelty, belongingness/preparedness, and contingency also affect acquisition. Timing and Other Factors:  Short delay conditioning is the most effective form of conditioning.  Timing of the CS and US, novelty, intensity, saliency, and contingency all influence acquisition.  The blocking effect shows that prior conditioning with one CS can interfere with subsequent conditioning of another CS.  The Rescorla-Wagner model explains conditioning by considering the surprisingness of the US and the salience of the CS and US. Extinction:  Extinction involves the decrease in the conditioned response when the CS is presented without the US.  The Rescorla-Wagner model can also explain extinction by considering the absence of the US. Multiple Choice Questions: 1. Reflexes are: a) Learned behaviors b) Conditioned responses c) Unconditioned responses d) Habituated behaviors Answer: c) Unconditioned responses 2. Which of the following is an example of classical conditioning? a) Salivation in response to food b) Blinking in response to a bright light c) Gagging when smelling something unpleasant d) Shivering when feeling cold Answer: b) Blinking in response to a bright light 3. Classical conditioning allows us to: a) Learn new associations between stimuli b) Reduce the magnitude of a response through repetition c) Increase the response to a stimulus through sensitization d) Predict important biological events Answer: a) Learn new associations between stimuli 4. The observable behaviour associated with a reflex can vary due to: a) Habituation and sensitization b) Classical conditioning and extinction c) Contiguity and contingency d) Acquisition and spontaneous recovery Answer: a) Habituation and sensitization 5. The Rescorla-Wagner model of conditioning explains: a) The timing of classical conditioning trials b) The effects of pairing and contiguity on conditioning c) The factors that affect the acquisition of conditioned responses d) The surprisingness and strength of conditioned stimulus associations Answer: d) The surprisingness and strength of conditioned stimulus associations Week 11 (L1): Instrumental conditioning

Covering all of the learning objectives and the notes below, create a dot point summary with questions and answers to possible multiple-choice questions: Summary: ABC – Antecedents, Behaviour, Consequences: The Stimulus (A):  Antecedents are the associated stimuli that motivate behaviour.  Classical conditioned stimuli (CS) can become associated with the outcome and motivate behaviour.  Stimulus control determines what behaviour to perform in a given situation.  Habitual responses involve stimulus-response relationships. The Response (B):  The response is the behaviour of interest.  It is defined by the effect it produces on the environment.  The response is controlled by its consequences.  Shaping is a method used to obtain novel responses. The Outcome (C):  The outcome is the consequence of the response.  Reinforcers increase the probability of behaviour, while punishers decrease it.  Primary reinforcers are unlearned, while secondary reinforcers are associated with primary reinforcers.  Punishment can have various problems and may not be as effective as non-aversive rewards. Factors Affecting Acquisition:  Contiguity and contingency between elements are critical for acquisition.  Timing of reinforcement is important for learning.  Reinforcement schedules determine contingencies and response patterns.  LH (Limited hold) and FD/VD (Fixed/Variable duration) schedules involve specific time requirements.  Concurrent schedules involve multiple possible behaviours and associated outcomes. Reinforcement Schedules: Continuous reinforcement schedules:  Reinforce every response. Intermittent reinforcement schedules:  Only reinforce a subset of responses determined by the specified contingencies. Basic types of intermittent reinforcement schedules: 1. Fixed ratio:  Reinforcement delivered after a fixed number of correct responses.  Example: Reinforcement after every 2, 5, 10, or more correct responses. 2. Fixed interval:  Reinforcement becomes available after a specific time period.  Abbreviated as "FI" followed by the amount of time.  Example: Reinforcement available after 2 minutes (FI2), 20 minutes (FI20), etc. 3. Variable ratio:  Delivery of reinforcement varies but averages out at a specific number.  Like fixed ratio, must be defined.  Example: Reinforcement after 1, 3, 2, 1, and 3 correct responses (VR2). 4. Variable interval:  Time periods before reinforcement becomes available vary but average out at a specific interval.  Time interval must be defined.  Example: Reinforcement available after 2, 5, 3, 4, and 1 minute intervals (VI3) Extinction:  Extinction occurs when the response is no longer reinforced.  Extinction bursts and frustration may occur before behaviour decreases.  Context plays a role in renewal effects and spontaneous recovery. The Law of Effect:  Reinforcers strengthen stimulus-response associations.  Operant behaviours are controlled by their consequences.

Multiple Choice Questions: 1. Which element of instrumental conditioning refers to the behaviour or response? A. Antecedents B. Behaviour C. Consequences Answer: B. Behaviour 2. What is the purpose of shaping in instrumental conditioning? A. To reinforce the desired response immediately B. To ignore all previous responses C. To obtain novel responses by reinforcing closer approximations to the desired behaviour Answer: C. To obtain novel responses by reinforcing closer approximations to the desired behaviour 3. What is a primary reinforcer in instrumental conditioning? A. A reinforcer that reduces a primary biological need B. A reinforcer associated with a secondary reinforcer C. A reinforcer that is not learned Answer: A. A reinforcer that reduces a primary biological need 4. Which reinforcement schedule tends to lead to faster responding for the same number of reinforcers? A. Fixed ratio B. Fixed interval C. Variable ratio Answer: A. Fixed ratio 5. What happens during extinction in instrumental conditioning? A. The response is no longer reinforced B. The response becomes more persistent C. The response rate increases Answer: A. The response is no longer reinforced Week 12 (L1): Animal Cognition Covering all of the learning objectives and the notes below, create a dot point summary with questions and answers to possible multiple-choice questions: Outcomes:  Define animal cognition and distinguish it from S-R learning  Characterize different ways of navigating the world o Define and assess evidence for cognitive maps Summary: Animal Cognition  Areas of interest: memory, counting and timing, communication and language, reasoning, cognitive maps, navigation and homing, insight Morgan's Canon  Principle of parsimony in interpreting animal behaviour  Unnecessary complicated explanations, exemplified by psychoanalysis.  Hierarchy of explanations for navigation: S-R < Routes < cognitive maps Alex the Parrot - Avian Language Experiment  Alex's abilities and limitations in language and cognitive understanding  Behaviour beyond simple S-R or reflex mechanisms Clever Hans  Horse capable of answering arithmetic questions  Unintentional cues from trainer and biased interpretation by onlookers Cognitive Maps

 Definition of cognitive maps as internal spatial representations  Importance of spatial cognition in the animal kingdom  Various uses of the term "cognitive map" Latent Learning  Tolman and Henzig's concept of tentative field maps in rats' brains  Contrast with S-R learning and importance of motivation Place Learning vs Response Learning  Hull's argument for response learning, Tolman's argument for place learning  Role of external landmarks in demonstrating place learning  Effects of manipulating landmarks on behaviour Learning without Responding  McNamara, Long & White's study with maze-running and cart-pushing groups  Use of external cues (e.g., light) for location learning  Role of path integration (dead reckoning) in determining goal direction Path Integration  Use of path integration in featureless environments (e.g., ants)  Constantly updated "home" vector and orientation relative to external frame of reference  Cumulative error and reliance on landmarks Detour  Tolman and Honzic's detour tests as classic experiments for cognitive maps  Importance of detours, shortcuts, novel start positions, and invisible goals  Challenges faced by animals and human infants with transparent barriers Bees  von Frisch's research on bees' associative learning, path integration, and orientation  Use of sun and landmarks for navigation  Encoding of home directing vector and food source vector as dance communication Homing Pigeons  Resistance to factors such as anesthesia, vestibular lesion, and altered vision  Site-specific direction biases and the role of olfactory cues  Lack of support for a magnetic sense in homing pigeon navigation Radial Arm Maze  Rats' ability to choose maximally divergent arms and use spatial knowledge  Reliance on landmarks and susceptibility to errors caused by moving landmarks  Consistent arm preference even when maze is placed on the floor Olton's Study on External Landmarks  Rats' avoidance of spatial locations after maze rotation  Use of landmarks for orientation and absence of arm marking  Relationship between spatial memory and hippocampus size Caching: Memory or Marking?  Birds' ability to remember and recover cached food  Use of landmarks and association with specific food types and timing  Relationship between caching behavior and hippocampus size Morris Water Maze  Advantages of the water maze for studying spatial memory  Rats' ability to locate hidden platforms based on landmarks in the room Place Cells  Cells that respond to specific positions in the environment  Role of place cells in different environments and speed modulation  Boundary cells and their relationship with place cells  Grid cells and their representation of hexagonal grid patterns for spatial metrics  Head direction cells and their firing based on directional orientation

Multiple-choice questions 1: What is the principle behind Morgan's Canon? A) Animals possess complex cognitive abilities similar to humans B) Animals should be interpreted using the simplest explanations C) Animals' behaviour can be best understood through psychoanalysis D) Animals' cognition is solely based on S-R learning mechanisms Answer: B) Animals should be interpreted using the simplest explanations 2: Which of the following best describes Clever Hans? A) A parrot known for its language abilities B) A horse capable of answering arithmetic questions C) A pioneer in the field of avian cognition D) A researcher known for his studies on cognitive maps Answer: B) A horse capable of answering arithmetic questions Question 3: What is the primary difference between place learning and response learning? A) Place learning relies on external landmarks, while response learning is based on reflex mechanisms B) Place learning involves cognitive maps, while response learning is purely S-R based C) Place learning requires reasoning skills, while response learning is instinctual D) Place learning is observed in animals, while response learning is specific to humans Answer: B) Place learning involves cognitive maps, while response learning is purely S-R based 4: Which species is known for its use of dance communication to convey information about food sources? A) Bees B) Pigeons C) Rats D) Parrots Answer: A) Bees 5: Which type of cells respond to specific positions in the environment? A) Place cells B) Grid cells C) Boundary cells D) Head direction cells Answer: A) Place cells Week 12 (L2): Placebo Covering all of the learning objectives and the notes below, create a dot point summary with questions and answers to possible multiple-choice questions: Objectives:  Placebo & Nocebo?  What are they?  Are they ‘real’?  Placebo/nocebo and research Summary: Placebo and Nocebo  Placebo refers to a substance or procedure with no inherent effect that produces an effect.  Placebo effect is a genuine psychological or physiological effect attributed to receiving a substance or undergoing a procedure.  Placebo is often associated with positive effects, while nocebo refers to negative effects. Placebos in Depression  Clinical trials for depression treatments show high placebo response rates of 50-70%.  Antidepressant treatments often fail to show statistical superiority over placebos with high response rates. Placebo Definitions

 Placebo refers to substances or procedures without inherent powers but producing an effect.  Placebo effect encompasses genuine psychological or physiological effects.  Placebo can refer to both helpful and unhelpful effects (nocebo) Placebos/Nocebos  Placebos and nocebos have significant effects on individuals.  The magnitude of effects varies based on factors such as administration method and type of effect (injections more effective than oral) "Real" Effects of Placebos  Placebos powerfully affect the brain and different body systems.  Placebos are not limited to psychological effects but have physiological impacts. Evidence of Placebo Effects  Examples demonstrate placebo effects in various conditions, such as cancer patients experiencing reduced anxiety, nausea, and immune responses.  Placebo analgesia is associated with the release of endorphins in the brain. Placebo/Nocebo in Research  Placebo and nocebo effects have significant implications for research.  They can confound research outcomes and need to be accounted for. Placebo/Nocebo as a Confound  Perceived drug effects include both active drug and placebo components.  Randomized controlled trials are used to remove the placebo component when assessing the drug's effectiveness. Avoiding Placebo in Research  Considering a dose-response relationship alone may not be sufficient to avoid using a placebo condition.  Placebo effects can be as potent as drug effects, making it crucial to account for them in research. Multiple Choice questions: 1. What is a placebo? a) A substance or procedure that has inherent powers to produce an effect b) A substance or procedure that has no inherent power to produce an effect c) A powerful drug used for medical treatments d) A psychological phenomenon without any physical manifestations Answer: b) A substance or procedure that has no inherent power to produce an effect 2. Which of the following statements about placebos in depression is true? a) Placebo response rates in depression are negligible. b) Antidepressant treatments consistently outperform placebos in clinical trials. c) Placebo response rates in depression can reach as high as 50-70%. d) Placebo response rates in depression are lower than in other medical conditions. Answer: c) Placebo response rates in depression can reach as high as 50-70%. 3. What is the placebo effect? a) A psychological or physiological effect attributed to receiving a substance or undergoing a procedure. b) The inherent power of a substance or procedure to produce an effect. c) A harmful side effect of a medication. d) A phenomenon limited to the mind and not involving any physiological changes. Answer: a) A psychological or physiological effect attributed to receiving a substance or undergoing a procedure. 4. What is the role of placebos and nocebos in research? a) They have no impact on research outcomes. b) They are important for understanding the psychology of patients. c) They can confound research outcomes and need to be considered. d) They can replace the need for randomized controlled trials. Answer: c) They can confound research outcomes and need to be considered. 5. Why do randomized control trials (RCTs) use placebos? a) To ensure all participants receive active drug treatment.

b) To create a control group for comparison with the active drug. c) To maximize the placebo effect in the study. d) To increase the statistical power of the study. Answer: b) To create a control group for comparison with the active drug. Week 13 (L1): Placebo (2) Covering all of the learning objectives and the notes below, create a dot point summary with questions and answers to possible multiple-choice questions: Outline  Placebo/nocebo mechanisms  Placebo/nocebo in the real-world- examples Summary: Placebo/nocebo mechanisms: Mechanism I: Classical Conditioning  Drug or active ingredient is the unconditioned stimulus (US)  Response (e.g., pain reduction) is the unconditioned response (UR)  Neutral stimulus (e.g., pill casing) becomes associated with the UR through repetition  Neutral stimulus (now conditioned stimulus, CS) produces a conditioned response (CR)  Demonstrated in various responses such as digestive processes, blood pressure, respiration, and heart rate Nocebo Effect:  Side effects of cytotoxic drugs in chemotherapy (nausea and immune suppression) can be a result of classical conditioning  Hospital cues (neutral stimulus) get paired with drug infusion, leading to the production of nausea and vomiting (CR) Mechanism II: Expectancy  Placebo effects are a type of expectancy effect  The placebo elicits an expectation for a particular effect, and the expectation produces that effect Conditioning vs. Expectancy:  Research supports conditioning as a mechanism for placebo effects , while the role of expectancy is less clear  Examples like asthma and substance-induced symptoms suggest additional factors beyond conditioning or expectancy Placebos in the real world - examples:  Meta-analysis of placebo effect in migraine showed pain relief in patients receiving oral or injected placebos  Placebo treatments have been intentionally used to relieve pain, reduce drug intake, decrease patient dependence, and reduce costs  Placebos can improve emotional distress without requiring deception Nocebo effects and health:  Nocebo effects can cause substantial harm to people  Public health fear campaigns, such as those related to COVID-19, can generate nocebo responses in the community  Correlational research suggests that anxiety related to COVID-19 can lead to self-reported symptomatology, indicating a possible nocebo effect Ethical considerations:  Deception is not always necessary for placebo effects to occur  Open-label placebos have shown efficacy without ethical concerns The responsibility of psychologists:  Psychologists should consider the impact they have on the world, even with well-intentioned actions Implications for public health campaigns:  Public health campaigns and information shared through media can potentially induce nocebo effects  Careful consideration is needed to minimize the negative impact on public health and well-being.

Multiple Choice questions: 1. Which mechanism is associated with classical conditioning in placebo effects? a) Expectancy b) Conditioning c) Dose-response d) Intentional treatment Answer: b) Conditioning 2. What is the role of expectancy in placebo effects? a) It is the primary mechanism for placebo effects. b) It is not relevant to placebo effects. c) It enhances conditioning effects. d) It diminishes the effectiveness of placebos. Answer: c) It enhances conditioning effects. 3. What are the potential benefits of intentional placebo treatments? a) They reduce total drug intake and decrease patient dependence on drugs. b) They require deception of patients. c) They have no effect on health outcomes. d) They only work for specific medical conditions. Answer: a) They reduce total drug intake and decrease patient dependence on drugs. 4. What is the relationship between anxiety related to COVID-19 and self-reported symptomatology? a) Anxiety has no impact on self-reported symptomatology. b) Anxiety is directly related to confirmed COVID-19 diagnoses. c) Anxiety leads to increased self-reported symptomatology. d) Anxiety reduces the occurrence of self-reported symptomatology. Answer: c) Anxiety leads to increased self-reported symptomatology. 5. What should psychologists consider regarding their impact on the world? a) They should focus on their personal well-being only. b) They should prioritize ethics over research findings. c) They should avoid public health campaigns altogether. d) They have a responsibility to consider the effects they have, even with good intentions. Answer: d) They have a responsibility to consider the effects they have, even with good intentions.