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The Christology of the First Two Ecumenical Councils
Christian Siciliani
Christology
Fr. John Cush
November 25, 2023
1
Introduction
Since the beginning of Christianity, man attempted to understand the great mystery of the
person of Christ and his relation to God. Thus, in the attempt to understand this mystery, there
have been many conflicts within the Church. The Church had to deal with contrasting opinions
or even heresies that threaten, even today, her doctrine. Trying to emphasize either the divinity or
the humanity of Christ many Christians ended up in error, developing heresies that represented
serious threats to the Church. Some heresies were disputed in a time relatively short, while others
such as Arianism and Apollinarianism, required more time and a stronger effort. As we will see,
Arianism, and later on even Apollinarianism, became the cause of great dissent and division
during the fourth century that required a long time and an effort before the Church was able to
confute. This task required the work of many great theologians (such as St. Athanasius and the
Cappadocian Fathers) and the gathering of different councils, the most important of them are the
first two Ecumenical Councils: the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople.
Historical background of the Council of Nicaea and Constantinople I (Constantine)
Before starting to speak about the Council of Nicaea, it would be good to give some
historical context. An important character that played a significant role in the history of the
Church, particularly in the fourth century, is the Emperor. During the period of the Nicaean
dispute, the Roman Emperor was Constantine (272-337), who was proclaimed Emperor in 306.
Already with the Edict of Milan (313), which declared tolerance for Christianity in the Roman
Empire
1
, Constantine played a crucial role in the life of the Church. By considering himself as an
earthly image of the divine monarchy, Constantine thought that it was his duty to lead men to
God. Therefore, regarding himself as legally entitled to interfere in religious affairs, Constantine
1
“Constantine the Great.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, November 20, 2023.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great
2
took the initiative to call the Council of Nicaea. The Councils were not an initiative of the popes
or bishops but of the Emperor, who now shows the great influence that the power of the Emperor
had over the Church.
2
Section on the Council of Nicaea
Introduction on Arius
It is also important to see that before the spreading of Arianism and the calling of the
First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea, many heresies were already emerging, such as Gnosticism,
Marcionism, Montanism, Monarchism, and Adoptionism.
3
All these heresies surely created
dissent within the Church. However, in the time period of the fourth century, the heresy that
created the greatest division and confusion was Arianism, elaborated by the Alexandrian priest
Arius (256-256). Probably influenced by Origin’s emphasis on the Son’s subordination to the
Father and Dionysius’s insistence that the Son is distinct from the Father and was made by the
Father, Arius erroneously constructed a theology that caused great dissent and division within the
Church.
4
Arius’ argument and Arianism
Arius emphasized so strongly the uniqueness and indivisible nature of God that he ended
up falling into the heresy of considering the Son as a creation. Leo Donanld Davis perfectly
presents Arius’ Christology with the following explanation:
Since the very essence of God is transcendent, unique and indivisible, it cannot be shared.
For God to impart His substance to some other being would mean that He is divisible and
changeable. There can, of course, be no duality in divine beings for God is unique.
2
Leo Donald Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787). Their History and Theology
. (Wilmington:
Michael Glazier, Inc., 1987), 56.
3
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils
, 36–43.
4
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils
, 51.
3
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Therefore, whatever else exists must come into being not by communication of God’s
being but by creation from nothing. Since the contingent world could not bear the direct
impact of the all-powerful God, He needed an instrument of creation through which to
mediate His power. This instrument is the Word, who is a creature, generated or made,
perfect and beyond all other creatures, but a creature nonetheless because he has a source,
while God Himself has none. The Word had a beginning; though born outside of time,
prior to his generation or creation he did not exist.
5
At the basis of his erroneous Christology, Arius strongly emphasized the transcendence,
unicity and indivisibility of God. However, this emphasis leads him in error by considering the
Son a creation. Arius considers the Son as a creation because according to him the existence of
another divine person would bring to a duality which would be inconceivable. Thus, with his
famous heretical statement, “there was a time when he [the Son] was not,” Arius defined the
nature of the Son as a created being, superior to all other beings but still created.
6
Consequences of Arianism in relation to Christology
Due to his great influence, Arius was able to spread this heresy and convince many
bishops of his heretical Christology. Obviously, this heresy not only provoked dissents and
division within the Church but produced terrible theological consequences, which lay in the
denial of the divinity of Christ. As Alexander, bishop of Alexandria, reasoned, since only God
can save humanity if Christ is not fully divine then Christ cannot redeem humanity from sin.
7
Results of the Council
Canons of the Council
Although Alexander convoked a meeting of bishop, in 318, in which
Arius was condemned of heresy, still many bishops, such as Secundus of
5
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils,
52.
6
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils,
52.
7
Robert Louis Wilken,
The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity
. (New Haven and London: Yale
University Press, 2013), 89.
4
Ptolemais and Theonas of Marmarica,
8
were sympathetic towards Arius’
arguments and therefore took his side, creating division in the Church.
Although this issue represented only a matter of theology, the Emperor
Constantine intervened in the ecclesiastical matter and proposed a council of
bishop to resolve the matter.
9
So, On May 20, 325, was opened the First Ecumenical Council in the
city of Nicaea with 318 participants attending it, among them Athanasius, a
25-year-old deacon and secretary of Alexander of Alexandra. In the Council
was formulated and approved a creedal statement which excluded Arian
interpretations. The crucial phrase, “of one substance (
homoousios)
with the
Father,” asserted the full divinity of Christ and left no space for Arian
interpretation. Although the term
homoousios
was accepted in the creed, the
word became objectionable for many bishops mainly because it was not a
scriptural term. Ultimately, the Creed, containing a series of anathemas, or
condemnations, was signed by most of the bishops. Thus, the Council
concluded with the exile of Arius, Secundus and Theonas, who refused to
sign the Creed, and the issuing of a series of canons dealing with church
discipline and actual problems dealing with administrative and ecclesiastical
affairs.
10
Section on the time between the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople I
The Cappadocian Fathers
8
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils,
53.
9
Wilken,
The First Thousand Years
90-91.
10
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils,
57-63.
5
Although the Council clearly stated the divinity of Chrit and condemned Arian’s position,
the conflicts did not end, rather generated more controversies. Constantine and the following
Emperors tried to nullify the results of the Councils, and Athanasius, who was one of the
strongest supporters of the Council of Nicaea and of the
homoousios,
was strongly persecuted
and exiled in different occasions by the different Emperors that succeeded Constantine.
However, despite the persecutions, Athanasius continued defending the teaching of Nicaea. Other
significant figures during the time between the First and the second Ecumenical Council are the
Cappadocian Fathers (St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory of Nazianzus, St. Gregory of Nyssa) who,
together with Athanasius, played a crucial role in the defeat of Arianism and of the
Pneumatomachi
, who denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit.
11
Different theological parties before the Council of Constantinople I:
homoousians,
homoiousians, homoians, and anomoians.
The years between the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople I, constitute
a time of great conflicts within the Church, in which can be distinguished four different
theological parties. The
Homoousians
, the Nicaean party (St. Athanasius), which defended the
portion of the Council of Nicaea and affirmed that the Son is of the same substance (
homoousios
)
of the Father; the
Anomoians
, the extreme Arian party, which affirmed that the Son is unlike
(
anomoios
) the Father; the
Homoiousians
, semi-Arians which affirmed that the Son is similar in
substance (
homoiousios
) to the Father; and the
Homoians
, which affirmed that the Son is like
(
homoios
) the Father in all things.
12
Section on the Council of Constantinople I
11
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils,
76-94.
12
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils,
94-97.
6
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Introduction to Apollinarius
The situation of the fragmentation of the theological parties within the Church only
aggravated once the bishop of Palestinian Laodicea, Apollinaris, introduced his heretical
teachings. Born around the year 310, Apollinaris was bishop of Laodicea from 361 to 390.
However, due to his Christological views, Apollinaris was denounced and condemned first by
Basil of Caesarea, then in 377 in a Roman council, and later on also at Antioch in 379 by
Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa.
13
Apollinaris’ argument and Apollinarianism
Apollinaris’ Christology consists in an over-emphasis of the divinity of Christ. While
firmly believing that only in Christ mankind is redeemed and restored, Apollinaris could not
believe that the mind of the Redeemer could be corrupted by the passions of human flesh. Thus,
as Leo Donanld Davis puts it, Apollinaris held that
From the first instant of the Incarnation a sentient material body was fused with the
unchanging Logos. The Word himself has become flesh without having assumed a human
mind, a mind changeable and enslaved to filthy thoughts. The divine energy fulfills the
role of animating spirit and of the human mind, in the God-man. The Logos is thus the
sole life of the God-man infusing vital energy into Him even at purely physical and
biological level. In the God-man there is one center of self-determination and will. He is
a single, living being in whom the soul directs and the body is directed. There is in Him
no conflict of wills, no confusion of separate identities. Rather, the one Son of God is not
of two natures but is one incarnate nature of the divine Words.
14
According to Apollinaris, with the Incarnation, the Word was fused with the human body,
having the Word taking place of the human mind. In this view, the Word is not subjected to the
passions of the flesh and no conflict of wills is generated. Thus, The Word controls the human
13
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils,
101-104.
14
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils,
105.
7
body and the flesh. Finally, since the flesh of the Savior has not come down from heaven, it is
God insofar as it is united with the Godhead so as to form one person.
15
Consequences of Apollinarianism in relation to Christology
The Christology elaborated by Apollinaris has implications. While Arius’ Christology
denied the divinity of Christ, Apollinaris’ Christology consisted in an over-emphasis of Christ’s
divinity, having as a consequence a denial of his humanity. This denial effects also the
understanding of redemption. As St. Gregory of Nazianzus would then single out, what is not
assumed by the Redeemer is not redeemed. Therefore, if God did not really assume a human
mind, essential part of men, then our humanity is not completely redeemed.
Results of the Council
The erroneous Christology proposed by Apollinaris, the fragmentation of Arian parties,
together with the Pneumatomachians, who denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit, prepared the
ground for the need of a new Council. Thus, the Emperor Theodosius I, who already in 380
condemned the Arians with the Edict of Thessalonica, convoked a council of bishops in the city
of Constantinople in 381. At the Council of Constantinople 150 bishops attended, among them
Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa. The Council, which dealt with both,
Apollinarianism and Pneumatomachians simply restated the basic tenets of the Nicene faith.
16
The Council accepted and expanded the Creed of Nicaea so to refute the position of
Apollinaris and included a section affirming the Holy Spirit as God to oppose the
Pneumatomachians. Although the official acts of the of the Council of Constantinople are no
longer existent, the Council released a Creed
which made appearance
as an official
15
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils,
104.
16
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils,
107.
8
formulary at the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
This Creed,
called
the Nicaean-
Constantinopolitan Creed, contained some addiction to the Nicaean Creed,
together with a new section declaring the divinity of the Holy Spirit. Thus,
the
Council of Constantinople carried the theology of the Council of Nicaea and applied it on the
Council of Constantinople, reasoning about the Son’s relation to the Father to the Holy Spirit.
17
Canons of the Council
Furthermore, the Council issued a series of canons, listing the heresies to be
anathematized. Beginning with the
Anomoians, the Arians, the semi-arians, the
Pneumatomachians, and the Apollinarians, were all anathemized. Finally the Fathers of the
Council proclaimed the primacy of and honor of Constantinople, after the one of Rome. This last
canon will then become the cause of conflicts in the Church for centuries to come. The Council
of Constantinople was never intended to be an ecumenical Council, the bishop of Rome was not
invited and only 150 Eastern bishops were present. However, its results were remarkable so that
at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, the Council of Constantinople began to be regarded in the
East as well as more than a local council.
18
Christology after the two Councils
The teachings of the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople help produce a Christology
that will then lay the foundation of Christian doctrine, affirming first the divinity, and then the
humanity of Christ. Although a more complete understanding of the person of Christ will be
stated at the Council of Chalcedon with the hypostatic union, (one divine person in two natures,
one human the other divine, in complete unity without mixture, change, division or separation)
17
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils,
120-125.
18
Davis,
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils,
126-129.
9
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the Christological understating of the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople consists of the
divine person who fully assumed every aspect of our humanity so to be able to redeem our
humanity under every aspect.
Conclusion
Ultimately the Councils come to bring order in a situation of great confusion and conflict.
Coming from the struggle of keeping a monotheistic religion, Arius ended up denying the
divinity of Christ. On the other side, trying to preserve and emphasize the divinity of Christ
Apollinaris ended up denying Christ’s humanity. An overemphasis on one aspect of the divinity
or humanity of Christ can lead to the production of a heretic Christology which can significantly
damage the Church.
10
Bibliography
Constantine the Great
. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation. (2023, November 19). Accessed
November 20, 2023,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great
Davis, Leo Donald.
The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787). Their History and
Theology
. Wilmington: Michael Glazier, Inc., 1987.
Grillmeier, Aloys.
Christ in Christian Tradition. Volume One. From the Apostolic Age to
Chalcedon (451)
. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975.
Kelly, J.N.D.
Early Christian Doctrines: Fifth, Revised Edition
. London, England: Continuum,
2006.
Kerestzy, Roch A.
Jesus Christ: Fundamentals of Christology
. Staten Island, New York: St.
Paul’s, 2002.
Murray, John Courtney.
The Problem of God
. New Haven and London: Yale University Press,
1964.
Schönborn, Cardinal Christoph.
God Sent His Son. A Contemporary Christology
.
San Francisco:
Ignatius Press, 2010.
Wilken, Robert Louis.
The First Thousand Years. A global History of Christianity
. New Haven:
Yale University Press, 2012.
11
12
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