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1 Acevedo Keily Karolina Acevedo Dr. Rebecca Millan ENGL1301.P33 21 October 2023 Are the Olympic Games worth it? In the year 776 B.C. was when the first Olympic games were played, not in 1896 as everyone assumes. (International Olympic Committee). The Olympic Games are the world’s largest and most prestigious series of sporting events. They have evolved over centuries, and their social, economic, and environmental impact now extends far beyond regular sporting events ( Tsang, et al. 101). According to the International Olympic committee, the games were dedicated to the Greek god Zeus and took place in the same place every four years. However, the games that we witness today are a modern version of the original Olympics played in ancient Greece. Even though the first modern games were in 1896, the first winter Olympics were until 1924 in Chamonix, France. (International Olympic Committee) The games have definitely evolved so much due to new interests and more categories in sports, such as: rhythmic gymnastics, cycling, and surfing. Those are only a few out of the many. Unlike back then when there was only: boxing, pankration, equestrian, running, wrestling, and pentation. (International Olympic Committee) There were originally three main criteria for participating in the ancient Olympic Games: being male, of Greek origin, and freeborn. Women (exceptions were made for owners of horses), slaves and foreigners were excluded. As soon as the truce had been proclaimed, the Olympians trained more to attempt to qualify for the Games. (International Olympic Committee) The Olympic Games of Antiquity also had champions; due

2 Acevedo to their performances, the names of the athletes are still known to us till this day. For instance: Astylos of Kroton, Milon of Kroto, Kyniska of Sparta, and Leonidas of Rhodes. (International Olympic Committee) According to Thárcyla Mourão et al., sport mega-events (SMEs) are an integral element of destination attractiveness known to create tangible and intangible benefits for host communities and residents. While the literature on SMEs and their impacts have focused on the tangible event-related benefits as primary hosting catalysts. The intangible benefits have received greater attention given, their socio-psychological outcomes in a host country or city. Previous studies from Thárcyla Mourã have stated that intangible benefits such as community pride, self- esteem, and excitement from hosting SMEs are important determinants for reaching resident support behaviors as well as improving their attitudes towards an event. To this respect, noted that psychological impacts such as community cohesion and spirit were found to be positively predictive of the quality of life and event support, while Ribeiro et al. noted that feelings of event-related pride and social experiences increased from pre- to post-event among Rio residents (qtd. in Mourão et al. 22). These psychological benefits on the local community allow to understand feelings and attitudes toward hosting sport mega-events and thus facilitate the social leverage of these events. ( Mourão et al. 22) Recent studies investigating psychological impacts from hosting a sport mega-event have drawn on the psychic income theory (PIT). Several scholars have used PIT to describe the heightened socio-psychological outcomes of event hosting, justifying public investment in terms of intangible benefits for local communities. ( Mourão et al. 23) The development of television, the internet, social media, and public transportation has brought the Olympics to a global audience, increasing both their prestige and their cost. Although

3 Acevedo todays Olympic Games attract more than 11,000 athletes, representing over 200 countries, and offer more than 300 individual events across 33 sports. (Tsang 101) Albert Tsang the author of the “The Economic Consequences of Hosting the Olympic Games: International Evidence from Cross-Listings” has mentioned that successfully hosting the Olympics can improve the health and well-being of residents of the host city and country. Hosting the Olympics is often expected to increase the stature of both the host country and the host city on the global stage. For example, the host country may receive greater and/or more positive coverage from the media during and following the Olympics, which may enhance the visibility and reputation of its products in the global market, ultimately leading to greater demand for these products. (Tsang pg. 102) The economic impact of the Los Angeles Olympics was analyzed by (Economic Research Associates, 1984). This study found the economic impact of the games on Southern California to be US $ 2.3 billion in 1984 dollars and supported 73,375 jobs. Kim et al. (1989) examined the economic impact of the Seoul Games and found an economic impact of around $1.6bn, with an increase in employment of 336,000 jobs. (Ameneh Shokri pg.985) In the year of the Lillehammer Games in Norway, the concept of environmental sustainability was introduced to the Olympics, marking it as the first "green" competition. Consequently, the Olympic Charter recognized environmental issues as the third pillar alongside sports and culture. Olympic Games have a significant environmental impact throughout their lifecycle: before, during, and after the event, particularly in areas like construction, transportation, and waste management. Historically, different host cities have adopted various approaches to address these environmental impacts. For instance, the 1960 Rome Games saw improvements in public transportation and infrastructure. Tokyo's 1964 Games involved the development of new

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4 Acevedo highways and expanded water and wastewater systems. However, not all Olympic Games have had the same environmental focus, as exemplified by the 1900 Paris Games and the 1904 St. In addition to environmental concerns, hosting the Olympics has broader impacts. Research by Chalip highlights that major sporting events like the Olympics can improve tourism infrastructure, including parks, sports facilities, public transportation, highways, tourist attractions, and airports. These events attract large populations, including athletes, spectators, and fans, and play a significant role in promoting a host country's cultural and tourist attractions. Economically, the Olympics bring about significant changes, affecting not only the sporting landscape but also the social and cultural fabric of the host country. With the massive influx of people, the event contributes to economic growth and development. These mega-sporting events are not just about the competitions; they influence the entire spectrum of a host city's life, from politics to culture and the environment. Therefore, the study of the economic, social, and environmental impacts of the Olympic Games on host cities is a crucial research area, as it helps us better understand the profound and multifaceted consequences that such global events can have. (Ameneh Shokri pg. 986-987)

5 Acevedo Atkinson (2008) stated the social effects on the host city of the Olympic Games can be members of a community which includes: health benefits, mental health, social skills and capital. It was expressed about the health benefits that are associated with sporting events to promote healthy living, improve physical health and participation in Olympic sports (Atkinson, 2008). Bull (2007) stated in a study entitled "The hosting of major sporting events on local residents" that the social effect refers to of improved communication and collaboration within the community. It could be a co-operative entrepreneurship, social inclusion, social integration, strengthening collective identity, uniting people, social interaction, enhances the social and

6 Acevedo cultural understanding (Bull, 2007). As Essex and Chalkley 29 have claimed, they can strengthen regional traditions and values, and increase local pride and community spirit (Essexs and Chalkley, 1998). The London 2012 Olympics as evidence of social benefits across the UK, suggests that the Olympics could be instrumental in supporting the wider regeneration policies, such as the empowerment of disadvantaged groups through employment opportunities related to the Olympics, improved employment prospects through experience obtained before and during the Olympics, increased social integration and cooperation through the development of local enterprises and other projects focused on the Olympics, such effects could also affect crime rates, access to education and general welfare and the location (Eftec, 2005). Chakly (1999) noted the environmental impact study entitled "Urban development through hosting international events," which can be mentioned environmental impacts to land, water, air, biodiversity, energy, waste, heritage cultural, transportation, and housing and ... Before 1994 was not much attention to the environment. In 1994, the IOC and UNEP (United Nations Environment Program), Receipt the concept of sustainable development.

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7 Acevedo opposition THE USE BY ATHLETES of substances on the prohibited list of the World Anti-Doping Agency (Wada) remains the primary, if not the only, threat to the fairness of competition to which all sports should aspire. April Henning and Paul Dimeo, both academics in the relatively novel discipline of sports studies, provide a broad overview of how doping has developed in elite sport, referencing all the most high- profile offenders, including Ben Johnson, the sprinter deprived of his Olympic gold medal in what has been described as the dirtiest race in history--the 100 metres final at Seoul, 1988--and the main episodes, such as the GDR's state-sponsored doping regime. They show how governing bodies were slow to react to the use of chemical compounds in sport, given that, in the West, they were seen as a potentially helpful solution to various physical and psychiatric problems. Societal attitudes, too, have changed. Jacques Anquetil, five times winner of the Tour de France in the 1950s and 1960s, openly admitted to the use of stimulants, but remains a national hero in France. More than three decades later, Lance Armstrong won a less than magnificent seven Tours, but even his belated confession to Oprah Winfrey has not rectified his image as a national disgrace in the US. defense The fight against doping and the protection of clean athletes are top priorities for the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which has established a zero tolerance policy to combat cheating and to hold accountable anyone responsible for using or providing doping products. The fight against doping is a priority for the IOC. It works in close collaboration with the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), with an aim to applying a “zero tolerance” policy. The IOC’s Medical Commission has been fighting doping since 1967. Its field of action expanded after the creation of WADA in 1999. The role of this independent Agency is to promote and coordinate, on an international level, the fight against all forms of doping. At the Games, the IOC requires the Organising Committee to apply all practical methods of collecting urine and blood samples. It sets the number of tests to be performed in collaboration with the IFs concerned, the Games Organising Committee and the laboratory accredited for the Games, which works solely under the authority of the IOC.

8 Acevedo The OG may face the risk of being interrupted, which forms a barrier to its sustainable development, or in the worst case, this non-governmental socio-cultural movement may have to cease if the current detrimental trend is not reversed. The IOC is clear minded on the gravity of this issue and has taken numerous efforts to get rid of the current difficulties. For example, the IOC Executive Board concluded a tripartite agreement with Paris and Los Angeles and their respective NOCs for the simultaneous election of the host cities of the OG 2024 and OG 2028. During the IOC Session in Lima, the 2024 and 2028 Games were awarded, respectively, to Paris and Los Angeles “to ensure the stability of the OG for 11 years” [18]. It is obvious that the “double award” solution aims to achieve the ultimate goal of the sustainability of the OG. Another example to illustrate the IOC’s efforts is that the concept of the Olympic legacy is highlighted by the IOC to justify the cost and input of the OG in an attempt to persuade more people and cities and thus save the OG [19–22]. In addition to all that the IOC has done to reduce the pressure on Olympic hosts during the bidding for, preparation for, and delivery of the OG, organizing simplified, flexible, and sustainable Games is also of paramount importance to regain the confidence of potential bidding and host cities, which is the direction of the IOC’s recent reforms [23]. These principles of organizing Games were carried out and highlighted in the preparation for and delivery of Beijing 2022. While the literature on IOC reform has grown recently, measures to decrease the workload of Organizing Committees of Olympic Games (OCOGs) did not receive enough attention.

9 Acevedo Response to opposition In the 2004 Athens Olympics, The Acropolis was made accessible through the installation of a wheelchair stair climber and lift. New lighting was also installed ahead of the Games; the Athens Archaeological Park was created; and the Panathinaikon Stadium was upgraded. One hundred thousand Greeks received technical, managerial or other Games related training Some Athens 2004 venues were converted for post–Games use, ranging from sports facilities to a local theatre, to shopping and convention centres, to Government offices and a new university campus (IOC, 2012). Atkinson (2008) Louis Games, which had limited urban development impact. One common thread in the history of the Olympics is the increase in demand for infrastructure and services, including housing, energy, transportation, and waste management, due to the influx of athletes and spectators. This leads to air, water, and soil pollution. To address these pressures, host cities have taken various measures, such as promoting public transportation, waste reduction, water recycling, energy conservation, and increasing environmental awareness (Ameneh Shokri pg. 986-987

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10 Acevedo Works Cited Baim, Dean V., et al. “The Value of Olympic Sponsorship: Domestic vs Foreign Sponsoring Firms.” International Journal of Sport Finance , vol. 16, no. 2, May 2021, pp. 95– 108. EBSCOhost , https://doi- org.ezproxy.southtexascollege.edu/10/32731/IJSF/162.052021.04 . Beloff, Michael. "Rope a dope: Keeping athletics clean despite state-sanctioned cheating." TLS. Times Literary Supplement , no. 6235, 30 Sept. 2022, p. 22. Gale Literature Resource Center , ink.gale.com/apps/doc/A722454918/LitRC? u=txshracd2547&sid=ebsco&xid=eff1d7bb . Accessed 23 Oct. 2023. Gleaves, John. "Manufactured dope: How the 1984 US Olympic cycling team rewrote the rules on drugs in sports." The international journal of the history of sport (2015): 89-107. Mourão, Thárcyla, et al. “Psychic Income Benefits of the Rio 2016 Olympic Games: Comparison of host community pre- and post-Games Perceptions.” Journal of Sport & Tourism , vol. 26, no. 1, 2022, pp. 21–41, https://doi.org/10.1080/14775085.2021.2023364 . International Olympic Committee.“Olympic Games of Antiquity - Olympic Channel.” Factsheet: Olympic Games of Antiquity , International Olympic Committee , 26 Sept. 2022 stillmed.olympics.com/media/Documents/Olympic-Games/Factsheets/The-Olympic-Games- of-the-Antiquity.pdf.

11 Acevedo “The Olympic Games: A Critical Approach.” ProtoView , Apr. 2020. EBSCOhost , research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=bc4296ac-fec4-3231-8253-4033c1c9258c. Mourão, Thárcyla, et al. “Psychic Income Benefits of the Rio 2016 Olympic Games: Comparison of host community pre- and post-Games Perceptions.” Journal of Sport & Tourism , vol. 26, no. 1, 2022, pp. 21–41, https://doi.org/10.1080/14775085.2021.2023364 . Shokri, Ameneh, Seyyed Jafar Moosavi, and Morteza Dousti. "Study of economic, social and environmental impacts of Olympic Games on the host cities from professors and experts viewpoint Case study: London 2012 Olympic." International Journal of Sport Studies 3.9 (2013): 984-991. Tsang, Albert, et al. “The Economic Consequences of Hosting the Olympic Games: International Evidence from Cross-istings.” Journal of International Accounting Research , vol. 21, no. 1, 2022, pp. 101–129, https://doi.org/10.2308/jiar-2021-033. Weed, Mike. Olympic Tourism . Butterworth-Heinemann, 2008. Yan, Weihua, et al. “Efforts Proposed by IOC to Alleviate Pressure on Olympic Games Hosts and Evidence from Beijing 2022.” Sustainability (2071-1050) , vol. 14, no. 23, Dec. 2022, p. 16086. EBSCOhost , https://doi-org.ezproxy.southtexascollege.edu/10.3390/su142316086 .