Anth 350 Midterm - Google Docs (2)

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ANTH 350 Midterm Part One Short Answer Questions: 1. What kinds of artifact characteristics (traits, attributes) are useful for creating chronologies? Why? The three traits that are the most helpful for creating chronologies are design, material, and technology because they often have distinct characteristics that differ throughout time. Design and material traits like patterns and what the artifact is made out of can help find the region and time period by knowing some background information on the culture. Some materials and designs such as corrugated ware can be used as a baseline because they are used throughout most time periods, whereas designs and different types of clay are usually more “trendy” and evolve over time. Lastly, technology is constantly developing so for example, if something such as bronze is found it can be known that this artifact cannot be from before the bronze era (Nelson 1916). 2. In what way did Julian Steward influence processualist archaeology? Julian Steward inspired processualist archaeology by introducing the theory of cultural ecology. This theory stated that cultural change is caused by adaptation to changing environmental conditions. This theory allowed for the shift in archaeology to become more of a science-based approach rather than just relying on cultural history so because of that Steward claims cultural history and environmental change are directly related (Sterling, 2023). 3. Describe four settings which facilitate organic preservation by limiting bacterial growth. The four settings that facilitate organic preservation by limiting bacterial growth are dry environments that are hot or cold, anaerobic conditions, highly alkaline or acidic conditions, and

high salinity. Because bacteria need oxygen, wet environments, and ideal temperature conditions to exist, their growth is slowed down or put to a halt completely by anaerobic circumstances and extreme temperature settings. High salinity and low pH levels also prevent bacterial development by getting in the way of their biological functions, or in other words, they cannot function and/or multiply well. If these conditions are present, there will be fairly good organic preservation and that is very important for archaeologists who observe organic materials (Sterling, 2023). 4. What does the “principle of superposition” state? How is this principle used in archaeology? The principle of superposition states that in rock strata, the range will go from the oldest rock at the bottom to the youngest rock at the top. This principle is used in archeology to help with the date range for artifacts and other things. After building a chronological sequence using the principle of superposition for a site, the environmental circumstances, cultural history, and social evolution can then be interpreted (Dunnell & Dancey, 1983). Short Essay Question : Compare and contrast chemical n-transforms and mechanical n-transforms. Give an example of each. Chemical n-transforms are modifications that break down archaeological material by changing its chemical makeup. Furthermore, chemical n-transforms have a greater impact on organic material than on inorganic material. This is mainly due to microorganisms that consume dead organic material, so in conditions that promote the life of the microorganisms, the chemical n-transforms will be more drastic. An example of this is organic matter such as bones found in a warm, humid environment and the environment caused the rate of decay of the fossil to be increased (Sterling, 2023).

Mechanical n-transforms are the damages that have an impact on archaeological deposits and artifact placements. These damages change the shape of objects and features but not their chemical content. These are also known as turbations and there are nine main types of them. An example of one of these turbations is faunal turbation or the movement of sediments and artifacts caused by animals. Both n-transforms deal with damages to materials archeologists are observing, caused by the environment. The difference between the two n-transforms is one focuses on the damage of the chemical makeup of the object and the other focuses on the damages done by other environmental forces (Sterling, 2023)). Long Essay Question : What is an archaeological “theory?” In your answer, define the concept of theory as it’s been discussed in class. Then provide an example discussed in class showing how theory influences research design. Archaeological theory is a framework for interpreting the past based on existing information. It gives an outline for analyzing data and making predictions about future discoveries. Like all theories, archaeological theories are made by hypothesis testing and evidence review, constantly changing as new evidence becomes available. Archeological theories follow the same process as biological theories, but they are used to explain patterns in material culture, social organization, and changes over time (Binford, 1962: 217). Some of the changes over time that could affect an archeological theory are diffusion, migration/ replacement, and invention/innovation. Diffusion describes the process by which some local continuity and some new ideas emerge. Migration and replacement describe the total replacement of one material culture with another. Invention and innovation describe when something completely new

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emerges. These changes over time, combined with known history about a certain area and physical materials found in a certain area, archeologists can make vast interpretations and connections about events that transpired many years ago. Since archeological theory relies on a timeline and dating to give an accurate description of what happened in that area, there needed to be an efficient and accurate way to do that. This helped motivate the development of carbon 14 dating in 1949. This research design was developed by Willard Libby and since the unstable isotope Carbon 14 has a predictable rate of decay, an estimate of how much time has gone by since that organism died can be formed. This new research design combined with the growing knowledge and understanding of how the environment affects culture, shifted the way scientists approach archeology. This left room for the new idea of processualism to arise. Processualism really focuses on the scientific and analysis portion of archaeology. This really shifted because archeology was not considered very scientific until this breakthrough. Archaeological theory is like a puzzle scientists are trying to piece together using physical or historical evidence (Sterling, 2023). Part Two Problem 1:Using the map below, give the approximate (as best as can be estimated with the information provided) position of the intersection of SE Hawthorne and 49th (Western Conservative Baptist Seminary, red dot). Use and identify both regional-scale coordinate systems discussed in class (5 points). 1. x=530,500 E y=5,039,800 N 2. x=45°30’60” y=122°36’30”

References Binford, L. R. (1962). Archaeology as anthropology. American Antiquity , 28 (2), 217–225. https://doi.org/10.2307/278380 Dunnell, R. C., & Dancey, W. S. (1983). The siteless survey: A Regional Scale Data Collection Strategy. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory , 267–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-003106-1.50012-2 Nelson, N. C. (1916). Chronology of the Tano Ruins, New Mexico . http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/660598?refreqid=search-gateway Sterling, S. (2023a). Week 2 Part 1 . Lecture. Sterling, S. (2023b). Week 2 Part 2 . Lecture. Sterling, S. (2023c). Week 3 Part 2 . Lecture. Sterling, S. (2023d). Week 3 Part 3 . Lecture. Wood, W. R., & Lee Johnson, D. (1978). A survey of disturbance processes in archaeological site formation. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory , 315–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-003101-6.50015-9

Anth 350 Midterm - Google Docs (2)

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