Midterm ANT102 Notes

Midterm ANT102 Notes Anthropologists September 6, 2023 Date: September 6, 2023 Topic: Herodotus Recall ● When was Herodotus born? ● What is Herodotus known as? ● How did Greece influence Western countries? ● What were the Persian Wars, and when did they occur? ● How did Herodotus describe non-Greek people? ● What was Herodotus's approach to learning about other cultures? ● What is "The Histories"? ● What were some major battles covered in "The Histories"? ● What were the contrasting views on Herodotus's work? ● What was Herodotus's main goal as a historian? Notes ● Born in 485 B.C. ● Known as the founder of history. ● Greece had a significant influence on Western countries. ● He was a child during the Persian Wars. ● Persian Empire threatened Greece and burnt the Acropolis. ● Made extensive descriptions of his travels to the Black Sea, Egypt, and Babylon. ● Described non-Greek people as barbarians; for Greeks, anyone not speaking Greek was considered a barbarian (non-Greek languages). ● Herodotus respected barbarians and was one of the first to appreciate other cultures. ● The ethnographic approach collected oral history from soldiers, merchants, and common people. ● Socialized with people from all walks of life, rich and poor. ● Described everyday things, such as gold processing and shipping methods, often mistaken for a merchant of his time. "The Histories" (his writings): ● An account of the Persian Wars. ● Explored figures like Cyrus the Great, Cambyses, Darius the Great, and Xerxes the Great. ● Major battles: Battle of Marathon, Battle at Salamis, Battle at Plataea, Battle at Mycale. ● Initially called the father of history, but later critics labelled him the father of lies. ● Some critics accused him of embellishing stories. ● His goal was to understand the causes of war and human behaviour towards each other. <aside> SUMMARY: ? Herodotus, born in 485 B.C., is considered the founder of history. He lived during a time when Greece's influence on Western countries was significant. Despite being a child during the Persian Wars, he observed the threat posed by the Persian Empire, which led to the burning of the Acropolis. Herodotus's extensive travels, including trips to the Black Sea, Egypt, and Babylon, formed the basis for his detailed descriptions. He referred to non-Greek people as barbarians, but he respected and appreciated their cultures, making him one of the first to do so. His ethnographic approach involved collecting oral history from various social groups, from soldiers to common people. He socialized with people of all backgrounds and provided insights into everyday life, often mistaken for a merchant of his time. "The Histories," his notable work, covered the Persian Wars, exploring figures like Cyrus the Great, Cambyses, Darius the Great, and Xerxes the Great. It also recounted major battles, such as the Battle of Marathon, the Battle at Salamis, the Battle at Plataea, and the Battle at Mycale.

While initially hailed as the father of history, Herodotus faced criticism, with some labelling him the father of lies for his reliance on stories from others. His primary goal was to understand the causes of war and human behaviour toward one another. </aside> Date: September 11, 2023 Topic: Ibn Battuta Recall ● Who was Ibn Battuta? ● What did he write, and when did he write it? ● How extensive was his travel? ● What was his cultural background? ● What was his primary goal during his travels? ● Which regions did he visit during his journeys? ● In what field was he a specialist? ● How did he serve diplomatically? ● Why is his work significant? ● What can we learn from his writings regarding travel and navigation during his time? ● What is the "Journey to Mecca in the Footsteps of Ibn Battuta," and why is it relevant? Notes ● Moroccan traveller and writer. ● Wrote "The Rihla" or "A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonder of Cities and Marvels of Traveling" in 1355. ○ Rihla is a genre of literature about one's journey. ● Travelled a remarkable 70,000 miles. ● Berber heritage. ● His dream was to pursue knowledge while performing Hajj in Mecca. ● His travels took him from Morocco to Vietnam. ● Specialized in Islamic law. ● Visited all the Muslim rulers of his time. ● Served as a diplomat, representing the Emperor of Delhi. ● Important for his accounts of various groups, especially those within the Muslim world. ● Described Indonesian pre-Muslim culture. ● Enhanced the global ethnographic record. ● His work was valuable for providing information about routes, passages, pirates, and safe and unsafe areas. "Journey to Mecca in the Footsteps of Ibn Battuta": ● [Additional information about this specific journey or adaptation, if available.] <aside> SUMMARY: ? Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveler and writer, authored "The Rihla" in 1355, a notable work in the genre of travel literature. His journeys were truly remarkable, covering a distance of 70,000 miles. As a Berber, he had a deep cultural heritage. Ibn Battuta's primary motivation was to gain knowledge, particularly while performing Hajj in Mecca. His travels spanned from Morocco to Vietnam, and he specialized in Islamic law. He had the opportunity to meet with and visit all the Muslim rulers of his era, and he also served as a diplomat, representing the Emperor of Delhi. His work is important for its detailed accounts of various groups, especially those within the Muslim world, and for describing pre- Muslim culture in Indonesia. Moreover, Ibn Battuta's writings provided valuable information about routes, passages, pirates, and the safety of different areas. Additionally, "Journey to Mecca in the Footsteps of Ibn Battuta" appears to be a related adaptation or journey, potentially inspired by his travels and writings, further enhancing our understanding of his legacy and adventures. </aside> Date: September 11, 2023

1. "Anahuac: or Mexico and the Mexicans ancient and modern" (1861) ○ Proto-ethnography, history, archaeology. 2. "Research into the Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilisation" (1865) ○ Comparative method. ○ Evolution = progress; identified an evolutionary pattern. ○ Linear history, suggesting that all societies would pass through these stages. 3. "Primitive Culture" (1871) ○ Science of culture. ○ Introduced the concept of animism. ○ First widely recognized definition of culture. ○ Focused more on psychological and mental aspects. ○ Noted for its influence on early social-cultural anthropology. ● Tylor was associated with Quakers and was heavily involved in reform movements. ● He considered animism the most primitive form of religion. <aside> SUMMARY: ? Edward Tylor, a prominent figure in the field of anthropology, is known for several key works that significantly influenced the discipline: 1. "Anahuac: or Mexico and the Mexicans ancient and modern" (1861): This work is considered proto-ethnography, combining elements of history and archaeology. 2. "Research into the Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilisation" (1865): Tylor introduced the comparative method and an evolutionary perspective, suggesting that all societies would progress through specific stages of development. 3. "Primitive Culture" (1871): Tylor's most renowned work, it is considered the foundation of the science of culture. He introduced the concept of animism and provided one of the earliest widely recognized definitions of culture. Tylor was more interested in psychological and mental aspects than technology. Tylor was associated with Quakers and was actively involved in reform movements. He considered animism the most primitive form of religion. </aside> Date: September 11, 2023 Topic: Lewis Henry Morgan 1818-1881 Recall ● Who was Lewis Henry Morgan, and what were his significant contributions? ● What were some of Morgan's political and social involvements? ● How did Morgan contribute to the field of anthropology? ● What was the method of cross-cultural comparison, and why was it necessary? ● Can you provide details about some of Morgan's key works, such as "Ancient Society" and "League of the Ho-De-No-Sau- Nee"? ● How did Morgan's ideas about North American ancestry influence the field? ● How was Morgan's work related to Marxist theory, and what was Karl Marx's stance on his ideas? ● What are some examples of the types of kinship identified by Lewis Henry Morgan? Notes ● Known for giving the first ethnology. ● Served as a Republican state senator. ● An advocate for the abolition of slavery. ● Created the method of cross-cultural comparison. Key Works: 1. "League of the Ho-De-No-Sau-Nee, or Iroquois" (1851) ○ Involved fieldwork and kinship studies. 2. "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family" (1871) ○ Pioneered the practice of cross-cultural comparison. 3. "Ancient Society" (1877) ○ Proposed Asian origins and evolutionism. ○ Suggested that North American ancestry is Asian. ○ His work influenced Marxist theory, with Karl Marx agreeing with his ideas.

Types of Kinship: ● Morgan identified six types of kinship, including Eskimo and Lineal. (Add details about the other types, if desired.) <aside> SUMMARY: ? Lewis Henry Morgan, a significant figure in anthropology, left a lasting impact on the field through his groundbreaking contributions: Morgan was known for giving the first ethnology and served as a Republican state senator while advocating for the abolition of slavery. His notable method of cross-cultural comparison became a foundational practice in anthropology. Key Works: 1. "League of the Ho-De-No-Sau-Nee, or Iroquois" (1851): This work involved fieldwork and kinship studies, offering valuable insights into indigenous cultures. 2. "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family" (1871): Morgan's pioneering work in cross-cultural comparison laid the groundwork for future anthropological research. 3. "Ancient Society" (1877): In this work, Morgan proposed the theory of Asian origins and evolutionism. He argued that North American ancestry had Asian roots. His ideas gained prominence in the field and were adopted by the Marxist system, with Karl Marx endorsing his theories. Morgan also classified different types of kinship, including Eskimo and Lineal, contributing to our understanding of human social structures. Overall, Lewis Henry Morgan's legacy in anthropology is characterized by his innovative methods, insightful research, and influential theories on the origins and development of human societies. </aside> Date: September 11, 2023 Topic: Franz Boas 1858-1942 Recall ● Who was Franz Boas, and why is he significant in anthropology? ● What role did Boas play in shaping the field of anthropology in the United States? ● What were some of Boas's key principles and beliefs regarding cultural anthropology? ● How did Boas differ from Lewis Henry Morgan in his views on cultural evolution? ● What is salvage anthropology, and why did Boas promote it? ● Can you explain the concepts of holism, historical particularism, and cultural relativism as advocated by Boas? Notes ● Known as the first professional American anthropologist. ● Mentor to many prominent anthropologists. ● Advocate for fieldwork as a fundamental research method. ● The idea of a universal evolutionary force was rejected, emphasizing cultural adaptation to specific needs. ● Promoted the principles of holism, historical particularism, and cultural relativism. ● Believed that individuals adapt to their environments, cultures reflect this adaptation. ● A strong critic of Lewis Henry Morgan's evolutionary theories. ● Promoted the concept of salvage anthropology, preserving cultural memories before they disappeared. ○ Such as language, stories, religion and culture Key Principles: ● Holism: Recognizing the interconnectedness of all aspects of culture and studying them together. ● Historical Particularism: Emphasizing the uniqueness of each culture's historical development. ● Cultural Relativism: Viewing other cultures without judgment, understanding them in their context. <aside> SUMMARY: ? Franz Boas is widely regarded as the first professional American anthropologist and had a profound influence on the development of the field:

</aside> Key concepts ● holism ● field work ● comparison ● cultural relativism/ ethnocentrism ● scientific (nomothetic) anthropology ● interpretive (idiographic) anthropology ● basic vs applied research Culture September 13, 2023 Topic: Culture Recall ● Notes ● The etymology of culture ○ study of words and origins ○ Four basic meanings of culture: 1. Colonia (colony) = “Inhabitation” 2. Cultivare (to till) = “To farm” 3. Cultura (tending something) = “Tending” 4. Cultus (cult) = “Honour, worship” ● The concept of “culture” ○ “… that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” Edward B. Tylor (1871) ○ “… culture is not only observable behaviour but, the shared ideals, values, and beliefs that people use to interpret experience and generate behaviour and that are reflected by their behaviour.” William Haviland (2005) ● Culture and human evolution ○ “In the beginning was the foot” - M. Harris – Advent of the hand-brain-mouth-eye complex ○ Brain development related to selection for 1. Bipedalism 1. helped with the growth and expansion of the brain 2. Neoteny 3. Cooperation & sharing 4. Complex social organization 5. Language & communication ● The triune brain ○ neo-cortex ○ limbic system ○ r-complex ● motor regions of the brain ● enculturation and child rearing ○ prolonged infant dependency period in homo sapiens ○ increased two-way learning capacity is required of human offspring (pedagogy) ● culture is learned ○ informal ○ technical ○ formal Discussion Topics for Tutorial #1 – September 14, 2023 Based on Sutton chapters 1-3 and the film Off the Verandah 1. What is distinctive about sociocultural anthropology in comparison to other subdisciplines of anthropology? 1. What sets sociocultural anthropology apart from other subdisciplines of anthropology, like archaeology, biological

anthropology, and linguistic anthropology? 2. How does sociocultural anthropology approach the study of human societies and cultures? ■ Distinctive Features of Sociocultural Anthropology: Sociocultural anthropology is one of the subdisciplines of anthropology that focuses on studying contemporary cultures and societies. It differs from other subdisciplines like archaeology, biological anthropology, and linguistic anthropology in the following ways: ■ It primarily examines living societies and cultures, while archaeology deals with past human cultures, biological anthropology explores human evolution and variation, and linguistic anthropology studies language. ■ Sociocultural anthropology emphasizes the study of social and cultural phenomena, including customs, beliefs, practices, and social institutions. ■ It often involves ethnographic fieldwork, where anthropologists immerse themselves in the culture they study to gain a deep understanding of it. 2. What is the difference between ethnocentrism and cultural relativism? 1. Define ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. 2. Why is it important for anthropologists to practice cultural relativism in their research? 3. Can you provide examples of situations where ethnocentrism might lead to misunderstandings or biases in cross- cultural encounters? 3. Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism: 1. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge other cultures and societies based on the values, norms, and standards of one's own culture. It often leads to a biased and negative evaluation of other cultures. 2. Cultural relativism, on the other hand, is the perspective that all cultures are unique and should be understood and evaluated in their own context. It opposes ethnocentrism and emphasizes the need to appreciate cultural diversity without imposing one's own cultural values. 4. What three factors prepared the ground for the rise of Western scientific thought? 1. Discuss the three factors that prepared the ground for the rise of Western scientific thought as outlined in the readings. 2. How have these factors influenced the development of anthropological thought and methodology? 3. Factors for the Rise of Western Scientific Thought: While the specific factors can vary, some common elements that prepared the ground for the rise of Western scientific thought include: ■ The Renaissance: A cultural and intellectual movement in Europe during the 14th to 17th centuries that saw a revival of interest in classical learning and the pursuit of knowledge. ■ The Enlightenment: An intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that promoted reason, individualism, and skepticism toward traditional authority. ■ Advances in Empirical Observation: The development of scientific methods and the use of empirical observation to understand the natural world contributed to the growth of scientific thought. ■ printing press ■ took a lot of time and money for people to print books 5. Outline the principal features of: a. Unilinear cultural evolution b. Historical particularism Principal Features of Cultural Evolution and Historical Particularism: a. Unilinear Cultural Evolution: 1. It's a now-outdated idea that all societies progress through a series of stages, evolving from simple to complex. 2. The stages were often characterized as savagery, barbarism, and civilization. 3. This concept has been largely discredited in anthropology due to its Eurocentric and ethnocentric biases. 4. “UCE proposed that societies evolved up a single line (unilinear), beginning at the bottom of the scale and striving to “climb the ladder” to eventually become like Europeans” 5. Simplified stages of unilinear cultural evolution by Tylor and Morgan 6. Stage Criteria Example culture Civilization writing modern europeans Upper Barbarian use of iron early greeks Middle Barbarian agriculture Hopi Lower Barbarian potteryu iroquois Upper savagery bow and arrow polynesians

culture can be learned or acquired ● informal learning is what you learn by being a member of society you will learn how to act within society ○ collective understandings ■ ordering food, taking a bus, raising hand in class ■ cultural norms; non binding rules of conduct not enfored by law ○ formal ■ laws or religion ○ technical ■ hunting cooking manufacturing ethography ● field work ○ primary data collecting pjase ○ requires interpersonal skills ○ entails risk ■ many people go into anthro due to adventure and excitement however you can die, get diseases or fall in love with the culture and live there ○ requires a methodology ■ demanding profession ■ methods ■ participant observation key point ■ surveys questionnaires ■ powerful method you can get qualitive data, simplistic answers that can be quantified ■ interviews ■ test/ experiments ■ analysis of cultural artifacts ■ focus groups ● ethnography ○ written history ○ or filmed ○ ethnography is based on fieldwork ■ after field work they write a monograph ■ one book on a specific spell of research or multiple ■ ethnology 1. classifications, alaysis, comparison of data 1. kinship descent, marriage, family organization 2. theory 1. explaining the data 1. any are the fathers authority figures in some societies but not in others 1. troninand island field work 2. malinowski vs freud 1. freud believed that pateriarchal authority was due to biology 1. the rebelliousness of males is a biological phenomenon in a patriarchal Austrian family 2. malinowski shows the matrillineal descent in troriand islander 1. children only show their lineage though their mothers descent 2. minimum of conflict between fathers and sons however there is conflict between the uncle and the son 3. the uncle (mother's brother) is the authority form 4. the form of marriage is moving in with the husband and his brother Economic organization ● subsistence/ adaptive strategy ○ Define ■ to provide for one’s sustenance ○ five main types ■ hunting and gathering/ foraging ■ has been the most successful as it is a consistent strategy with little error ■ humans have a feed as you go system ■ horticulture ■ define ■ the art or practice of garden cultivation and management. ■ tropical gardens ■ swath of forests or jungles clear cut, logs warmth

■ kinship and ancestry is tied to land ■ they need extensive amount of land to live their way of life ■ ■ intensive agriculture ■ involves complex tech such as the roman aqueduct and egyptian plough agriculture ■ associated with the rise of the state ■ the main advantage is that the same plot of land can be used over and over again by replenishing the nutrient fertilizer ■ non-nomadism ■ distinct division of labour is widened. ■ pastoralism ■ heading of animals and living off of animals ■ animals are used for pulling heavy things, transportation, for food, they use cows to make dairy products. ■ ■ industrial food production ■ dependant on fossil fuel ■ non labour intensive ■ capital intensive: requires a lot of money to become a viable farm ■ expensive machinery, fertilizer (derivative of oil), ■ Exchange 1: Reciprocity 1. Generalized 1. the gift economy 2. family/ kin/ friends ● non time bounded gift/ non expectation of a return ● sharing, ill pay this time you can pay next time 1. balanced 1. trade partnerships 2. e.g. Trobriand Kula ● 1. Negative 1. stealing and raiding 2. barter Exchange 2: Redistribution 1. Egalitarian 1. e.g Papua New Guinea pig feast ● equally redistributed pay off is prestige 1. stratified 1. e.g NW coast potlatch ● taxation is a major form of redistribution; you don't get back everything you pay Exchange 3: Market 1. commodities 1. 2. Markets/ marketplaces 3. market economies Tutorial 2 Film: Cree Hunters of Mistassini 1. What natural resources are essential? 1. The natural resources vital to the Cree Hunters of Mistassini include animals for hunting, fish for fishing, and plants for gathering. 1. wood, water, 2. How is work organized? 1. Work is organized through cooperation and division of labour within the community. Individuals have specific roles

1. decentralized political system 2. 2. What is the significance of kinship in the dispute? 3. What is the significance of social inequality in the dispute? 4. What is the role of magic in the dispute resolution process? Ant Ch.7 conflict ● improper sexual relations and theft will disrupt the social order ● political violence ○ terrorism, rebellion (such as the uprise of oppressed), coup d’etat (attempt to seize state power), revolution (purpose of reconstructing society) ● war (human universal) ○ feuding and raiding (fighting between local groups, not-long) ● dispute resolution ● contest ○ one on one battle, fighting, community dedicates a winner ● meditation ○ mediator may or may not have power ● adjudication ● compensation lecture notes ● essence of hunting is skill and intelligence ● hunter is the father of the thinker ● politics comes from greek term city, classical Greece is meant common wealth social control ● who is going to control society and make the decisions ● social order is a problem for all societies they are all compelled to maintain order and prevent chaos, any imbalance people rush to create an equilibrium to prevent fighting, sources of disorder, crime, war, natural disasters (collapse of brown age) ● social control is a pervasive no one single institution ● social norms to courts laws and physical force ● Laws, binding rules, compel people to behave in specific ways ○ they are essential in dissolving disputes, backed by threat of force, justified, based on authority ● laws and religion ○ laws are mechanisms to repair rifts in social fabric informal mechanism ● socialization ○ the principle mechanism of social control, established basic rules and norms of society to the young ○ develop emotional attachments in society to seek respect ○ competition for this respect will disrupt the peace (sibling rivalry) ○ social reward system for adhering to norms, never stops continues through life cycle ● gossip ○ a form of communication, in group communicatio, way of reporting and evaluating peoples actions, pass judgement, statement of public opinion ● shaming and ridicule ○ disapproval process results in reduction of self esteem makes you feel inferior, joking is an example ○ guilt is power of social control ○ humiliation is a form of social control ● witchcraft accusations ○ when people suffer misfortune they will accuse others of bewitching them which brings public attention on people, way of registering public opinion ○ which craft is widely believed Political Organization October 4, 2023

1. Multicentric 1. Bands 1. Exists within the state if those states fell apart they would continue to work 2. Egalitarian: simple kin units 2. Tribes 1. Egalitarian: 1. No holder of power 2. Complex kin unit 3. Solidarity 2. Alternatively called simple chiefdom 2. Unicentric 1. Chiefdoms 2. States Political Complexity and Scale ● Simple chiefdom is similar to tribes ● Complex chiefdom is numerous villages/ settlement ● In chiefdom, power is given due to hereditary/bloodline instead of democratically ● Chiefs tend to be wealthy, have fighting abilities, and soldiers, they have power and authority as they are presumed to have magic Tribes ● A Yanomamo shabono splits into two ○ If they can't find peace one fraction will leave by setting up a temporary shabono (hut) ● Yanomomo dispute resolution from the film The Axe Fight ○ When there is no institution to maintain social order it comes down to contest ○ The authority of village elders resolves the fight Chiefdom ● Chiefdoms oftentimes end up ruling the state States 1. Early states 1. City-states 1. Ex. Ur, Carthage, Athens 2. Territorial states 1. Ex. Assyrian Empire, Egypt 2. true separation of city and countryside 2. Nation states 1. Ex. Poland, Israel, Iran 3. Civic states 1. Ex. USA, USSR, Mexico 2. Eradicate ethnic dominance and differences to make running for office open to anyone 4. Supra-state organization 1. Council of Europe, European Economic Area, European Union 2. They trade, and exchange with each other, they are interconnected Social Categories ● Social Category 1: Race ○ A social category based on: ○ Phenotypic traits ○ Cultural constructs ○ The state ○ Folk classification: Racial classifications based on how common people see race ■ The term brown, ANT Tut 4 Using examples from readings, lectures, and films:

A Concise Introduction to Cultural Anthropology [Pages 1-15] [2023-09-11].pdf Chapter 1- Anthropology Anthropology is the study of all things related to humans and their societies throughout time and space, including culture, language, biology, and evolution Anthropology seeks to understand what makes these societies different and what they have in common ➔ Biological ◆ The study of human biology through time, focusing specifically on biological evolution and human variation (e.g., Jurmain et al. 2018). ◆ Paleoanthropology is the study of primate and human evolution, as well as the various aspects of geology and biology ◆ The stud of our closest living relatives, the nonhuman primates, is called primatology ◆ Biological anthropologists also specialise in human osteology, the study of the human skeleton ● Evolution: change ○ Common misunderstanding is that evolution has direction and that there is “progress” ➔ Linguistics ◆ The study of human languages, including their structure (grammar, syntax, meaning, cognition) and history ➔ Archaeology ◆ The study of human past ◆ Major difference between archaeology and cultural anthropology are in the data available and the methods used to obtain and analyze those data ◆ Archaeologist cannot directly observe past human behaviour so they have to rely on material remains of past behaviours, as seen in their artifacts (tools), food remains, houses, human remains, settlement systems, etc ◆ Archaeologists able to detect change over long periods of time, can identify broad trends and can examine transitions ➔ Cultural ◆ The study of extant (living) groups with the goal of learning about, and understanding of, full range of human behaviour ◆ Usually obtain information doing fieldwork with the society or group they are studying ◆ The study of a particular group at a particular time is called an “ethnography” and the information obtained from that study is called ethnographic data ◆ Time period in which the group is described becomes “ethnographic present” ◆ Comparative study of culture and societies is called ethnology ◆ More than one ethnography is needed to do ethology ➔ First World described countries that were aligned with the United States, now commonly called the West ➔ Second World was the communist states and Is now sometimes called the East ➔ Third World was the underdeveloped and unaligned states ➔ Some anthropologists use the term “Fourth World” to classify indigenous societies without their own nations living within contemporary countries (Neely and Hume 2020) ➔ The “Fifth World” consists of past societies known mostly through archaeology (Sutton 2017). ➔ Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism ◆ “Ethnocentrism” is the view that one’s society or group is somehow better than others ◆ The major issue with ethnocentrism is that it is often used to rationalize the mis- treatment of peoples (Americans believing Native Americans to be savages and as a result many Natives were killed, moved, or incarcerated) ◆ Anthropologists strive to mitigate ethnocentric views by taking a different approach: the suspension of judgement of other peoples’ practices in order to understand them in their own cultural terms, an approach generally called “cultural relativism” ◆ All societies and people are valid and have the right to exist, to have their own culture and practices, and to speak their own language (e.g., Johansson Dahre 2017) ◆ Western ethnocentrism is often operationalized in the words applied in reference to traditional groups. ➔ Cultural Appropriation ◆ Is the unauthorized use of customs, traits, or imagery of a society by an outsider for some purpose, generally to the detriment of the original society ➔ Empirical Science

◆ Empirical means objective data that are not open to interpretation; that is, data that are observable, measurable, and reproducible ◆ Generally based on the premise that the universe is real and measurable ➔ Western Scientific Method ◆ 1 Obtain data in the form of observations or measurements. ◆ 2 Formulate a hypothesis about the relationships between data. ◆ 3 Develop a test to judge the merit of the hypothesis. To be valid, a hypothesis must be testable. If the hypothesis is not testable, it is rejected. ◆ 4 Test the hypothesis. ◆ 5 Based on the results of the test, accept (support) or reject the hypothesis. Note that one cannot “prove” a hypothesis (proof only exists in maths and courtrooms) since there is always another test that might disprove it. ◆ 6 Repeat steps 1–5. ◆ 7 A series of related hypothesis might be combined into a model, an estimation of reality. ◆ 8 Test the model. ◆ 9 Repeat steps 6 and 7 (not to mention 1–5). ◆ 10 If a hypothesis or model survives repeated testing, it may be elevated to “theory” and perhaps eventually to a “law.” ➔ Non-empirical science is recognized as existing and worthy of study and understanding LECTURE NOTES Monday September 11th, 2023 Herodotus ➔ Story of the rise of classical Greece ➔ Histories means inquiry ➔ First attempt in western history to come up with a s ➔ Was a child during the Persian empire, had a quest for knowledge wanted to know why everyone was fighting / why there was war ➔ Persian empire threatening to take over Athens ➔ Greek people described non greek people as barbarians (ba bar - non greek speaking) ➔ Herodotus was accused of being a barbarian lover (looked at the Arabic world, India, Egypt with respect) ➔ Research method: collected oral history from travellers, soldiers, merchant, religious people, hung with common people (working class) ➔ Described mundane things (how gold was processed in India, how food was made, how ships were packed, transportation, etc) ➔ His writings were released as “The Histories”, hugely popular ➔ Used to be called the father of history, his critics called him the father of lies ➔ His critics claimed he promoted tales that people would tell him as truths Ibn Battuta

➔ Promoted cultural relativism and Anti racist ethos ➔ Boas was a critic of Morgan ➔ He promoted data collection (salvage anthropology) ➔ He preserved cultural wealth Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) ➔ Conducted the most intensive fieldwork ◆ Talked and lived with Natives for multiple days ➔ Natives point of view ➔ Functionalist theory: structure meeting primary human needs ◆ Aspects of culture are more or less integrated Seven key concepts 1. Holism 2. Fieldwork 3. Comparison 4. Cultural relativism / ethnocentrism 5. Scientific (nomothetic) anthropology 6. Interpretative (idiographic) anthropology 7. Basic (research done for the pursuit of knowledge) vs. applied research (practical, geared towards solving specific problems) A Concise Introduction to Cultural Anthropology [Pages 16-25] [2023-09-11].pdf Chapter 2: A Very Short History of Cultural Anthropology ➔ Number of events combined to create the conditions of development of Western scientific thought ◆ Invention of the printing press in 1446 made the production of books less expensive (more people had access to knowledge and literacy increased) ◆ In 1453 the Ottomans conquered Constantinople (Turkey), the seat of the Orthodox Christian Church and a centre of knowledge and learning (many academic people fled to Western Europe and the “centre” of knowledge shifted West ◆ European invasion of the New World in 1492, second European incursion since the Norse, resulted in the need for explanations of the myriad of new people and lands encountered. European colonial powers claimed large swaths of the planet and subjugated uncounted traditional societies. ➔ 1830’s- Charles Lyell formulated the Principle of Uniformitarianism ➔ A Natural Evolution ➔ In mid 1800’s, dominant cosmology in Western Europe was creationism ➔ In the 1830’s Charles Darwin had served as a naturalist on the British ships and conducted extensive studies, particularly on the Galapagos Islands off Ecuador ➔ Darwin's ideas accelerated the development of scientific disciplines within universities ➔ The Emergence of Anthropology as a Discipline ➔ Edward B Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan together developed a theory of how societies developed; the first coherent theory in anthropology ➔ Morgan was an attorney and was hired by the Haudenosaunee Iroquois for a land case ➔ Tylor and Morgan collaborated on a theory called Unilinear cultural evolution (UCE) ➔ UCE proposed that societies evolved up a single line (unilinear), beginning at the bottom of the scale and striving to “climb the ladder” to eventually become like Europeans

➔ Problems with UCE ◆ Tylor and Morgan misunderstood the basic concept of evolution, that there is no set direction in evolution and there is no such thing as “progress” ◆ Model was based on very few actual data, ignored many other aspects of culture ◆ UCE was very ethnocentric and formalized the use of “savage” and “barbarian” to reference traditional societies ➔ Historical Particularism ➔ Franz Boas, German, PhD in physics ➔ Argued that each society was the product of their own history and adaptation to their particular environment ➔ Believed each society was valid and should not be judged by others (cultural relativism) and that race was not a factor in human development ➔ Introduced the scientific method to anthropology and argued more detailed data were necessary to make generalizations and that intensive detailed ethnographic work was needed ➔ Viewed as “the father of American anthropology” ➔ Functional / Structuralism ➔ Functionalism is the idea that the key questions in anthropology entered on the function of institutions in a society ➔ Multilinear Cultural Evolution ➔ The idea that societies evolved along many lines (depending on conditions) ➔ Cultural Materialism ➔ The idea that societies are organized to address practical problems ➔ Basic approach that aims to understand the effects that technology, economy, environment, and population have on moulding societal structure and superstructure through strictly scientific method A Concise Introduction to Cultural Anthropology [Pages 26-34] [2023-09-11].pdf Chapter 3: Culture, Personality, and Worldview ➔ Culture is learned and shared behaviour in humans ➔ Humans have only minimal instincts, such as self-preservation, reproduction, and being maternal ➔ Virtually all human behaviour is learned: what one likes, how one thinks, what language one speaks, one’s beliefs, one’s values, one’s biases, what is good to eat, how one views the world, etc. All of these traits are socially transmitted ➔ Everything one experiences is filtered through the lens of their cultural background ➔ Culture is integrated into all social systems and forms one’s view of reality ➔ All societies have some form of political organization, social structure, kinship organization, economic system, religious system, and marriage ➔ Culture is transmitted using symbols, signs, emblems, and/or other things that represent something in a meaningful way ➔ Culture can also be maladaptive